阴道分泌物是医生常见的症状,可能为生理性或病理性。British Association for Sexual Health and HIV (BASHH) guidelinesCDC sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015
阴道分泌物的特性可随年龄(青春期前、育龄期或绝经后)、激素(妊娠期间或使用口服避孕药)或局部因素(例如月经、子宫内避孕器或产后状态)而产生变化。[3]Mitchell H. Vaginal discharge-causes, diagnosis, and treatment. BMJ. 2004;328:1306-1308.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC420177/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15166070?tool=bestpractice.com
病理性因素通常是因为感染:主要为细菌性阴道病、外阴阴道念珠菌病以及滴虫病,共计占阴道炎病例的90%。[4]Sobel JD. Vulvovaginitis in healthy women. Compr Ther. 1999;25:335-346.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10470518?tool=bestpractice.com非感染性病因包括萎缩性阴道炎、异物、过敏原以及卫生状况差。[5]Sobel JD. Pathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Curr Inf Dis Rep. 2002;4:514-519.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12433327?tool=bestpractice.com
细菌性阴道病
细菌性阴道病是最常见的阴道感染,在美国14-49岁女性中的患病率为29.2%。[6]Koumans EH, Sternberg M, Bruce C, et al. The prevalence of bacterial vaginosis in the United States, 2001-2004; associations with symptoms, sexual behaviors, and reproductive health. Sex Transm Dis. 2007; 34:864-869.http://journals.lww.com/stdjournal/Fulltext/2007/11000/The_Prevalence_of_Bacterial_Vaginosis_in_the.6.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17621244?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 显微照片显示细菌粘附于阴道上皮细胞,被称作线索细胞CDC影像库;M.Rein [Citation ends].细菌性阴道病的主要特征为阴道菌群的复杂改变,导致正常占优势的产过氧化氢乳酸杆菌减少。[7]Fredricks DN, Fiedler TL, Marrazzo JM. Molecular identification of bacteria associated with bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1899-1911.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa043802#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16267321?tool=bestpractice.com这些乳酸杆菌被其他浓度增加的微生物所替代,尤其各种厌氧菌,例如:阴道加德纳菌、人型支原体、普雷沃氏菌属、卟啉单胞菌属、拟杆菌属、厌氧消化链球菌属、梭杆菌属或阴道阿托波氏菌。[8]Hill GB. The microbiology of bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;169:450-454.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8357043?tool=bestpractice.com这些微生物将阴道多肽降解为胺类,导致生成细菌性阴道病患者的典型分泌物,产生大量蛋白水解羧化酶。
接受治疗的细菌性阴道病患者中有高达30%的患者会在3个月内复发。[9]Hay P. Recurrent bacterial vaginosis. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2000;2:506-512.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11095900?tool=bestpractice.com不推荐对无症状性细菌性阴道病患者进行常规治疗,主要是因为治疗应答率低,且在治疗后念珠菌病发病率升高。[10]Schwebke J, Desmond R. A randomized trial of metronidazole in asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis to prevent the acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;196:517.e1-6.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=17547876http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17547876?tool=bestpractice.com然而,治疗无症状性细菌性阴道病患者确实可降低后续衣原体感染的发生率。[10]Schwebke J, Desmond R. A randomized trial of metronidazole in asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis to prevent the acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;196:517.e1-6.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=17547876http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17547876?tool=bestpractice.com沙眼衣原体感染率:有中等质量的证据表明使用阴道内甲硝唑凝胶治疗无症状性细菌性阴道病可降低沙眼衣原体感染率。[10]Schwebke J, Desmond R. A randomized trial of metronidazole in asymptomatic bacterial vaginosis to prevent the acquisition of sexually transmitted diseases. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2007;196:517.e1-6.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=17547876http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17547876?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。细菌性阴道病感染有急性上生殖道感染、[11]Peipert J, Montagno AB, Cooper AS, et al. Bacterial vaginosis as a risk factor for upper genital tract infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;177:1184-1187.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9396917?tool=bestpractice.com阴道断端蜂窝组织炎、经阴道子宫切除术后脓肿、自愿终止妊娠后、子宫内膜炎以及盆腔炎性疾病的客观证据。[12]British Association for Sexual Health and HIV. UK National guideline for the management of bacterial vaginosis. 2012. http://www.bashh.org (last accessed 21 October 2016).http://www.bashh.org/documents/4413.pdf[13]Taha TE, Hoover DR, Dallabetta GA, et al. Bacterial vaginosis and disturbances of vaginal flora: association with increased acquisition of HIV. AIDS. 1998;12:1699-1706.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9764791?tool=bestpractice.com治疗细菌性阴道病患者的男性伴侣不会提高治愈率。因此不常规推荐。[14]Vutyavanich T, Pongsuthirak P, Vannareumol P, et al. A randomized double-blind trial of tinidazole treatment of the sexual partners of females with bacterial vaginosis. Obstet Gynecol. 1993;82:550-554.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8377981?tool=bestpractice.com
孕早期诊断的细菌性阴道病是早产、足月前胎膜早破、低出生率以及自发性流产的高危因素。[15]Leitich H, Bodner-Adler B, Brunbauer M, et al. Bacterial vaginosis as a risk factor for preterm delivery: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189;139-147.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12861153?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Hauth JC, Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, et al. Reduced incidence of preterm delivery with metronidazole and erythromycin in women with bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1732-1736.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7491136?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Kigozi GG, Brahmbhatt H, Wabwire-Mangen F, et al. Treatment of Trichomonas in pregnancy and adverse outcomes of pregnancy: a subanalysis of a randomized trial in Rakai, Uganda. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189:1398-1400.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14634576?tool=bestpractice.com早产:有中等质量的证据支持细菌性阴道病是早产的危险因素。其他结局为自发性流产、母亲或新生儿感染,以及围产期死亡。[15]Leitich H, Bodner-Adler B, Brunbauer M, et al. Bacterial vaginosis as a risk factor for preterm delivery: a meta-analysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189;139-147.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12861153?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Hauth JC, Goldenberg RL, Andrews WW, et al. Reduced incidence of preterm delivery with metronidazole and erythromycin in women with bacterial vaginosis. N Engl J Med. 1995;333:1732-1736.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7491136?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。然而,使用甲硝唑治疗无症状性感染患者不能预防早产。[18]Klebanoff MA, Carey JC, Hauth JC, et al. Failure of metronidazole to prevent preterm delivery among pregnant women with asymptomatic Trichomonas vaginalis infection. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:487-493.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa003329#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11519502?tool=bestpractice.com目前的数据不足以支持对低风险或高风险患者筛查和治疗来降低早产率。
滴虫病
占有症状女性阴道炎的4%-35%,黑人女性患病率比白人女性高4倍。[19]Anderson MR, Klink K, Cohrssen A. Evaluation of vaginal complaints. JAMA. 2004;291:1368-1379.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15026404?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 阴道分泌物相差湿涂片显微照相显示存在阴道毛滴虫原生物CDC图像库 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 滴虫性阴道炎患者从宫颈口处排出大量脓性分泌物CDC图像库 [Citation ends].这是全世界最普遍的性传播感染。[20]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Parasitic Diseases. Trichomonas Infection. 2004.http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/parasites/trichomonas/factsht_trichomonas.htm阴道毛滴虫是一种有鞭毛的原生动物,通常见于受感染者的阴道、尿道和尿道旁腺。[21]Krieger JN. Urologic aspects of trichomoniasis. Invest Urol. 1981;18:411-417.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7014514?tool=bestpractice.com常常伴发其他STD共感染。可能从女性传播给女性,罕见男性之间的传播。多数诊断滴虫病女性患者的男性伴侣也受到感染;因此,建议也治疗男性伴侣。[22]Sena AC, Miller WC, Hobbs MM, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection in male sexual partners: implications for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:13-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17143809?tool=bestpractice.com滴虫病可增加患者的HIV生殖器脱落(经治疗后可能减少)。[23]Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64:1-137.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6403a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21160459?tool=bestpractice.com对HIV阳性女性,建议在开始治疗时进行滴虫病筛查,每年也应筛查。滴虫病与不良妊娠结局(例如早产)相关,但目前尚未发现治疗滴虫病可降低围产期并发症发病率,因此对有症状的女性应采取保守的治疗方案。[24]British Association for Sexual Health and HIV. United Kingdom national guideline on the management of trichomonas vaginalis 2014. March 2014. http://www.bashh.org (last accessed 21 October 2016).http://www.bashh.org/documents/UK%20national%20guideline%20on%20the%20management%20of%20TV%20%202014.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24616117?tool=bestpractice.com
外阴阴道念珠菌病
占阴道炎病例的三分之一,是引起阴道炎第二常见的病因,也是临床实践中最常见的生殖感染之一。[25]Sobel JD. Vaginal infections in adult women. Med Clin North Am. 1990;74:1573-1602.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2246954?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 阴道涂片采用湿涂片技术识别白色念珠菌CDC影像库;Stuart Brown博士 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 阴道涂片革兰染色显示白色念珠菌CDC影像库;Stuart Brown博士 [Citation ends].约 20-50% 的健康无症状女性的阴道菌群中存在念珠菌属。外阴阴道念珠菌病 (vulvovaginal candidiasis, VVC) 常见于成人,尤其是绝经期前女性。在绝经后和围绝经期女性中并不常见。这不被认为是STD。
白色念珠菌是 VVC 最常见的病因。光滑念珠菌和近平滑念珠菌是其他可导致更轻度症状 VVC 的微生物。由于宿主炎症反应和酵母菌毒力因素之间复杂的相互作用而出现有症状的疾病。三分之二的自我诊断的外阴阴道念珠菌病和自行治愈的妇女实际并非患有VVC。[26]Ferris DG, Nyirjesy P, Sobel JD, et al. Over-the-counter antifungal drug misuse associated with patient-diagnosed vulvovaginal candidiasis. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;99:419-425.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11864668?tool=bestpractice.com
VVC 的危险因素包括糖尿病控制不佳、[27]De Leon EM, Jacober SJ, Sobel JD, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for vaginal Candida colonization in women with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. BMC Infect Dis. 2002;2:1.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11835694?tool=bestpractice.com抑制正常阴道菌群生长的广谱抗生素、高雌激素水平(例如使用口服避孕药 (OCP)、使用雌激素治疗或妊娠时)、免疫抑制(包括 HIV 感染患者,此类患者 VVC 发病率更高,疾病持续时间长)以及遗传易感性。外阴阴道念珠菌病与近期性伴侣数不相关,但可能与性交频率增加相关。[28]Eckert LO, Hawes SE, Stevens CE, et al. Vulvovaginal candidiasis: Clinical manifestations, risk factors, management algorithm. Obstet Gynecol. 1998;92:757-765.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9794664?tool=bestpractice.com
单纯性VVC定义为具有以下特征的感染:
散发性或不频发的VVC
轻度至中度症状
可能为白色念珠菌
发生于具有免疫能力的患者
复发性VVC是:[29]Spinillo A, Pizzoli G, Colonna L, et al. Epidemiologic characteristics of women with idiopathic recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis. Obstet Gynecol. 1993;81:721-727.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8469460?tool=bestpractice.com
定义为每年发生感染4次或以上
见于约5%-8%的患者。
复杂性VVC:[30]Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Gulminetti R, et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for fungal vaginitis caused by non-albicans species. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;176:138-141.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9024104?tool=bestpractice.com
较不常见的感染病因
其他较不常见的阴道炎感染病因包括衣原体感染、
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: McCoy 单层细胞显微照片显示细胞内沙眼衣原体包涵体;放大 50 倍CDC;E.Arum博士、N.Jacobs博士 [Citation ends].淋球菌感染,
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 显微照片示宫颈涂片上可见多形核白细胞和(细胞外)双球菌CDC影像库;Joe Miller [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 淋病所致宫颈炎和阴道分泌物CDC图像库 [Citation ends]. HSV,
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 由单纯疱疹病毒所致的宫颈炎;可见糜烂性炎症伴宫颈旁化脓CDC;Paul Wiesner 博士 [Citation ends].链球菌感染所致,[31]Sobel JD. Vaginitis. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1896-1903.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9407158?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Verstraelen H, Verhelst R, Vaneechoutte M, et al. Group A streptococcal vaginitis: an unrecognized cause of vaginal symptoms in adult women. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2011;284:95-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21336834?tool=bestpractice.com生殖系统血吸虫病(非洲报告),[33]Yirenya-Tawiah D, Amoah C, Apea-Kubi KA, et al. A survey of female genital schistosomiasis of the lower reproductive tract in the Volta basin of Ghana. Ghana Med J. 2011;45:16-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3090093/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21572820?tool=bestpractice.com以及龈内阿米巴感染(在埃及与子宫内避孕器使用相关)。[34]Foda AA, El-Malky MM. Prevalence of genital tract infection with Entamoeba gingivalis among copper T 380A intrauterine device users in Egypt. Contraception. 2012;85:108-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22067807?tool=bestpractice.com尚未确认支原体是否为引起阴道分泌物的原因。[35]McGowin CL, Anderson-Smits C. Mycoplasma genitalium: an emerging cause of sexually transmitted disease in women. PLoS Pathog. 2011; 7:e1001324.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3102684/pdf/ppat.1001324.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21637847?tool=bestpractice.com
非感染性病因
包括变应性或接触性皮炎(例如乳胶、精液、灌洗液、染料)、化学刺激物(例如肥皂、卫生棉条、护垫、避孕套)、卫生状况差、萎缩性阴道炎(雌激素缺乏)、异物(例如卫生棉条、子宫帽、避孕装置)、糜烂性扁平苔藓、创伤性阴道炎、产后萎缩性阴道炎、脱屑性炎性阴道炎(伴有大量脓性分泌物的慢性难治性阴道炎)、盆腔放射、[36]Rodrigues AC, Teixeira R, Teixeira T, et al. Impact of pelvic radiotherapy on female sexuality. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2012;285:505-514.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21769555?tool=bestpractice.com贝赫切特综合征(血管炎;症状包括溃疡和关节疼痛性肿胀)、输卵管癌以及宫颈癌。[31]Sobel JD. Vaginitis. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1896-1903.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9407158?tool=bestpractice.com经阴道悬带成形术的并发症可能包括阴道网片侵蚀产生的脓性阴道分泌物。[37]Baessler K, Hewson AD, Tunn R, et al. Severe mesh complications following intravaginal slingplasty. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;106:713-716.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16199626?tool=bestpractice.com文献中报道的其他较不常见的阴道分泌物病因包括子宫肌瘤脱垂[38]Stott D, Zakaria M. The transcervical expulsion of a large fibroid. BMJ Case Reports. BMJ Case Rep. 2012;2012:bcr0120125523.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23008360?tool=bestpractice.com和阴道瘘。[39]de la Poza G, López-Sanroman A, Taxonera C, et al. Genital fistulas in female Crohn's disease patients: clinical characteristics and response to therapy. J Crohns Colitis.
2012;6:276-280.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22405162?tool=bestpractice.com
儿科
与育龄期女性相比,青春期前患者的阴道pH值为中性、缺乏防止感染的抗体,阴道较短且离直肠更近,且暴露于极低水平的雌激素。由于这些原因,该年龄组外阴阴道炎的风险更高,约占所有妇科主诉的70%。[40]Sanfilippo JS, Wakim NG. Bleeding and vulvovaginitis in the pediatric age group. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1987;30:653-661.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3308254?tool=bestpractice.com[41]McGreal S, Wood P. Recurrent vaginal discharge in children. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2013;26:205-208.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22264471?tool=bestpractice.com该年龄组患者阴道分泌物通常不是由感染引起的,也几乎不会是恶性肿瘤所致。[42]Jaquiery A, Stylianopoulos A, Hogg G, et al. Vulvovaginitis: clinical features, aetiology, and microbiology of the genital tract. Arch Dis Child. 1999;81:64-67.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=10373139http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10373139?tool=bestpractice.com小于6岁女童的阴道分泌物的常见病因包括异物(45%)、性虐待(18%)和原因不明(36%)。[43]Striegel AM, Myers JB, Sorensen MD, et al. Vaginal discharge and bleeding in girls younger than 6 years. J Urol. 2006;176:2632-2635.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17085178?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Simon DA, Berry S, Brannian J, et al. Recurrent, purulent vaginal discharge associated with longstanding presence of a foreign body and vaginal stenosis. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2003;16:361-363.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14642957?tool=bestpractice.com其他原因包括非特异性阴道炎(泡泡浴刺激、香皂、紧身衣、自后向前擦拭)、链球菌阴道炎(伴发于或在症状性链球菌性咽炎后发生),以及生理性白带(初潮前6-12个月的内源性激素)。感染性病因可能包括蛲虫、(出生后最多 1 年内)母亲产道传染、A 组 β 溶血性链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌以及某些革兰阴性杆菌。诊断淋病奈瑟菌或沙眼衣原体感染则提示患者可能被性虐待。[45]Merkley K. Vulvovaginitis and vaginal discharge in the pediatric patient. J Emerg Nurs. 2005;31:400-402.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16126111?tool=bestpractice.com