参见 鉴别诊断 以获取更多具体信息
最初的治疗策略:气道、呼吸、循环、残疾
脑外伤患者的初始治疗包括迅速进行气道、呼吸、循环和功能的评估,在需要时提供恰当的干预措施。要保证院前环境安全,以最大程度降低旁观者和急诊人员的风险。对于 TBI 患者的初始评估和管理,NICE 指南、高级创伤生命支持方案 (Advanced Trauma Life Support protocol) 和欧洲外伤课程 (European Trauma Course) 是有帮助的指导。[20]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Head injury: assessment and early management. Jun 2017 [internet publication].http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG176[48]Committee on Trauma, American College of Surgeons. ATLS: Advanced trauma life support program for doctors. 8th ed. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2008.[49]Lott C, Araujo R, Cassar MR, et al. The European Trauma Course (ETC) and the team approach: past, present and future. Resuscitation. 2009 Oct;80(10):1192-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19632023?tool=bestpractice.com 与孤立的 TBI 相比,多发伤是常见的全身性损伤,且有更大的生命威胁。[48]Committee on Trauma, American College of Surgeons. ATLS: Advanced trauma life support program for doctors. 8th ed. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2008. 大约 40%-50% 的严重颅脑外伤患者同时存在其他的严重的创伤,其中 10% 的患者同时存在脊髓损伤。[50]Sarrafzadeh AS, Peltonen EE, Kaisers U, et al. Secondary insults in severe head injury - do multiply injured patients do worse? Crit Care Med. 2001 Jun;29(6):1116-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11395585?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Holly LT, Kelly DF, Counelis GJ, et al. Cervical spine trauma associated with moderate and severe head injury: incidence, risk factors, and injury characteristics. J Neurosurg. 2002;96(3 Suppl):285-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11990836?tool=bestpractice.com 在排除脊椎损伤之前,应使用颈托和脊柱护板。
气道和呼吸
由于 TBI 患者颈椎损伤的风险增加,进行气道和呼吸初始评估的同时必须评估颈椎制动的需求。[20]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Head injury: assessment and early management. Jun 2017 [internet publication].http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG176[48]Committee on Trauma, American College of Surgeons. ATLS: Advanced trauma life support program for doctors. 8th ed. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2008. 众所周知,低氧和高碳酸血症的出现会使 TBI 患者病情恶化。研究表明,即使一次短暂的缺氧也会导致较差的结果,此外,一段时间的高/低碳酸血症均与较差的结果相关。[52]Warner KJ, Cuschieri J, Copass MK, et al. The impact of prehospital ventilation on outcome after severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma. 2007 Jun;62(6):1330-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17563643?tool=bestpractice.com 在入院前,如果发现 TBI 患者不能自主呼吸,不能维持气道开放或补充氧气后不能维持>90% 氧饱和度,则需要进行气道辅助。[53]Badjatia N, Carney N, Crocco TJ, et al; Brain Trauma Foundation; BTF Center for Guidelines Management. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury 2nd edition. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2008;12(suppl 1):S1-52.https://www.braintrauma.org/uploads/04/13/Prehospital_Guidelines_2nd_Edition_2.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18203044?tool=bestpractice.com 当及时送至急诊科时,来自美国和英国的指导建议:对 TBI 和GCS<9 的患者置入一个准确的气道。[20]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Head injury: assessment and early management. Jun 2017 [internet publication].http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG176[48]Committee on Trauma, American College of Surgeons. ATLS: Advanced trauma life support program for doctors. 8th ed. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2008. 虽然神经肌肉阻滞不影响瞳孔对光的反应,但在应用之前记录患者体格检查的基线神经学检查结果尤为重要,并使用短效的神经麻痹药物,有助于对神经功能进行重新评估。[54]Ma OJ, Atchley RB, Hatley T, et al. Intubation success rates improve for an air medical program after implementing the use of neuromuscular blocking agents. Am J Emerg Med. 1998 Mar;16(2):125-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9517684?tool=bestpractice.com
应采用连续脉搏血氧饱和度测定监测氧合和通气参数,目标氧饱和度为≥95%。[32]American College of Surgeons: ACS TQIP best practices in the management of traumatic brain injury. Jan 2015 [internet publication].https://www.facs.org/~/media/files/quality%20programs/trauma/tqip/traumatic%20brain%20injury%20guidelines.ashx 通气应使用连续呼气末 CO2 监测,潮气末 CO2 目标值为 35-40 mmHg。[53]Badjatia N, Carney N, Crocco TJ, et al; Brain Trauma Foundation; BTF Center for Guidelines Management. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury 2nd edition. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2008;12(suppl 1):S1-52.https://www.braintrauma.org/uploads/04/13/Prehospital_Guidelines_2nd_Edition_2.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18203044?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Davis DP. Early ventilation in traumatic brain injury. Resuscitation. 2008 Mar;76(3):333-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17870227?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Davis DP, Dunford JV, Ochs M, et al. The use of quantitative end-tidal capnometry to avoid inadvertent severe hyperventilation in patients with head injury after paramedic rapid sequence intubation. J Trauma. 2004 Apr;56(4):808-14.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15187747?tool=bestpractice.com
一般情况下不应该常规给予过度通气,但可作为一种暂时的方法应用于有脑疝临床证据的 TBI 患者,例如瞳孔不等大、反射瞳孔扩大/瞳孔反射消失、眼球运动迟缓、进行性神经功能恶化或无力。[53]Badjatia N, Carney N, Crocco TJ, et al; Brain Trauma Foundation; BTF Center for Guidelines Management. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury 2nd edition. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2008;12(suppl 1):S1-52.https://www.braintrauma.org/uploads/04/13/Prehospital_Guidelines_2nd_Edition_2.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18203044?tool=bestpractice.com
循环
甚至院前/住院短暂的低血压都会影响颅脑损伤的结果。[26]Fearnside MR, Cook RJ, McDougall P, et al. The Westmead Head Injury Project outcome in severe head injury. A comparative analysis of pre-hospital, clinical and CT variables. Br J Neurosurg. 1993;7(3):267-79.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8338647?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Marmarou A, Saad A, Aygok G, et al. Contribution of raised ICP and hypotension to CPP reduction in severe brain injury: correlation to outcome. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2005;95:277-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16463865?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Manley G, Knudson MM, Morabito D, et al. Hypotension, hypoxia, and head injury: frequency, duration, and consequences. Arch Surg. 2001 Oct;136(10):1118-23.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/392263http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11585502?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Chesnut RM, Marshall LF, Klauber MR, et al. The role of secondary brain injury in determining outcome from severe head injury. J Trauma. 1993 Feb;34(2):216-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8459458?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Kokoska ER, Smith GS, Pittman T, et al. Early hypotension worsens neurological outcome in pediatric patients with moderately severe head trauma. J Pediatr Surg. 1998;33:333-338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9498412?tool=bestpractice.com 在大多数情况下,低血压是由颅外出血引起,不过 TBI 引起的自主神经功能障碍也可导致低血压。既往研究表明,TBI 患者的收缩压低于 90 mmHg 与结局不良相关。[57]Marmarou A, Saad A, Aygok G, et al. Contribution of raised ICP and hypotension to CPP reduction in severe brain injury: correlation to outcome. Acta Neurochir Suppl. 2005;95:277-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16463865?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Manley G, Knudson MM, Morabito D, et al. Hypotension, hypoxia, and head injury: frequency, duration, and consequences. Arch Surg. 2001 Oct;136(10):1118-23.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/392263http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11585502?tool=bestpractice.com 其他研究表明,采用目标为 90 mmHg 会低估低血压相关的继发性脑损伤,并且可能使结局恶化。[61]Brenner M, Stein DM, Hu PF, et al. Traditional systolic blood pressure targets underestimate hypotension-induced secondary brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2012 May;72(5):1135-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22673237?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Berry C, Ley EJ, Bukur M, et al. Redefining hypotension in traumatic brain injury. Injury. 2012 Nov;43(11):1833-7.http://www.injuryjournal.com/article/S0020-1383(11)00393-7/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21939970?tool=bestpractice.com 在 2012 年,一项研究显示,对于 50-69 岁的患者,将收缩压维持在≥100 mmHg,对于 15-49 岁或 70 岁以上的患者,维持在≥110 mmHg,可能改善患者结局。[62]Berry C, Ley EJ, Bukur M, et al. Redefining hypotension in traumatic brain injury. Injury. 2012 Nov;43(11):1833-7.http://www.injuryjournal.com/article/S0020-1383(11)00393-7/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21939970?tool=bestpractice.com
脑创伤基金会 (Brain Trauma Foundation) 在其 2016 年的更新指南中采用了基于年龄的收缩压目标,将其作为 3 级推荐。[7]Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery. 2017 Jan 1;80(1):6-15.https://braintrauma.org/uploads/03/12/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27654000?tool=bestpractice.com
采用用液体复苏可能会加重脑水肿和/或脑出血这一担忧仅仅是出于理论,一些研究反复表明,保持血压正常能够改善患者的结局。对于孤立性 TBI 患者,等渗生理盐水仍然是首选的复苏液体,[63]Myburgh J, Cooper DJ, Finfer S, et al. SAFE Study Investigators; Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group; Australian Red Cross Blood Service; George Institute for International Health. Saline or albumin for fluid resuscitation in patients with traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2007 Aug 30;357(9):874-84.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa067514#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17761591?tool=bestpractice.com 对于存在多发伤的患者,恰当时,可使用血液制品。对于成人患者,应快速给予 2 L 生理盐水,对于儿童患者,快速给予 20 mL/kg 体重的生理盐水。[53]Badjatia N, Carney N, Crocco TJ, et al; Brain Trauma Foundation; BTF Center for Guidelines Management. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury 2nd edition. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2008;12(suppl 1):S1-52.https://www.braintrauma.org/uploads/04/13/Prehospital_Guidelines_2nd_Edition_2.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18203044?tool=bestpractice.com
缺陷:早期神经系统检查
简单的神经系统检查,应与格拉斯哥昏迷评分 (GCS) 结合进行,检查瞳孔和运动功能。GCS 广泛用于评估 TBI 患者的意识水平,并提供预后信息(当得分很低或很高),使医生能够预期诊断和监测患者的病情。[64]Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: a practical scale. Lancet. 1974 Jul 13;2(7872):81-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4136544?tool=bestpractice.com GCS 13-15 分结局良好,但不能依此排除颅内损伤。GCS 评分<9 分与临床恶化和结局不良相关。连续 GCS 检测能够为病情恶化提供临床警示。已证实,简化运动评分(遵守指令=2分,定位疼痛=1 分和遇疼痛退缩或更差=0 分)有与 GCS 相似的预测效能。[65]Singh B, Murad MH, Prokop LJ, et al. Meta-analysis of Glasgow coma scale and simplified motor score in predicting traumatic brain injury outcomes. Brain Inj. 2013;27(3):293-300.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0054727/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23252405?tool=bestpractice.com相似地,可以使用对 GCS-运动反应 (GCS-m) 评分二选一的评价方式来确定患者是否服从指令(即,如果患者未服从指令,则 GCS-m 评分<6 分;若患者服从指令,则 GCS-m 评分=6 分),已经提出以此作为一种对院外诊疗的分类方式。一项回顾性分析发现,GCS-m 评分 < 6 分能够与 GCS 总分一样准确地预测严重损伤。[66]Kupas DF, Melnychuk EM, Young AJ. Glasgow Coma Scale motor component ("patient does not follow commands") performs similarly to total Glasgow Coma Scale in predicting severe injury in trauma patients. Ann Emerg Med. 2016 Dec;68(6):744-50.http://www.annemergmed.com/article/S0196-0644(16)30295-5/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27436703?tool=bestpractice.com 全面无反应性量表 (FOUR) 在运动反应和睁眼反应的基础上增加了脑干反射和呼吸节律,已显示出与 GCS 相似的预测效力。[67]Nyam TE, Ao KH, Hung SY, et al. FOUR score predicts early outcome in patients after traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2017 Apr;26(2):225-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27873233?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Kasprowicz M, Burzynska M, Melcer T, et al. A comparison of the Full Outline of UnResponsiveness (FOUR) score and Glasgow Coma Score(GCS) in predictive modelling in traumatic brain injury. Br J Neurosurg. 2016;30(2):211-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27001246?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 成人和小儿 GCS经 Micelle J. Haydel 医生许可使用 [Citation ends].
瞳孔反射功能作为反映损伤后病理和严重程度的指标,应连续监测。瞳孔检查可以在昏迷患者或患者接受神经肌肉阻断剂或镇静剂时评估。[18]Maas AI, Stocchetti N, Bullock R. Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurol. 2008 Aug;7(8):728-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18635021?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Meyer S, Gibb T, Jurkovich GJ. Evaluation and significance of the pupillary light reflex in trauma patients. Ann Emerg Med. 1993 Jun;22(6):1052-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8503525?tool=bestpractice.com
镇静和镇痛
中度 TBI 患者往往会出现一定程度的躁动,而多发伤患者尚有其他部位的疼痛性损伤。疼痛和躁动可引起心率、血压、体温和 ICP 升高,代谢需求会明显增加。[48]Committee on Trauma, American College of Surgeons. ATLS: Advanced trauma life support program for doctors. 8th ed. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2008. 疼痛和躁动也能导致在获取影像学分析和评价复苏过程的生理反应时更加困难。使用麻醉剂或镇静剂的缺点包括心肺功能的潜在损害,和评估神经功能状况时的不准确性。镇痛和抗焦虑药物应该在完整的神经系统检查完成后应用,然后对患者的血流动力学的整体状况进行评估。短效药物是在患者已经稳定,有明确的诊断时的优先选择。
治疗 ICP 升高的方法
TBI 伴有 ICP 升高的患者可能会出现呕吐、精神状态改变、动眼功能和瞳孔功能障碍。ICP 升高和脑疝晚期症状包括瞳孔固定和散大,Kussmaul 呼吸和 Cushing 三联征(收缩压升高、心动过缓、脉压增大)。ICP 升高的治疗必须专注于减小下述的体积:脑实质、脑脊液、血容量或颅内占位病变。
主要干预措施包括如下:
将床头升高呈 30 度角。认为这能够改善静脉回流量和脑灌注压,[70]Haddad SH, Arabi YM. Critical care management of severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2012 Feb 3;20:12.https://sjtrem.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1757-7241-20-12 尽管一项 Cochrane 评价并未找到足够的证据支持或反驳此举。[71]Alarcon JD, Rubiano AM, Okonkwo DO, et al. Elevation of the head during intensive care management in people with severe traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database of Sys Rev. 2017;(12):CD009986.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29283434?tool=bestpractice.com
应用能缓解疼痛和激越的止痛和镇静可减少代谢需求。
过度换气(使 pCO2 降低至 30-35mmHg)可作为降低 ICP 的暂时措施,通过引起血管收缩发挥作用。为治疗急性脑疝,在使用时,应将过度通气的时间限制于最长可达 30 分钟,并且在此期间,应使用高级脑组织氧监测设备进行密切监测。[70]Haddad SH, Arabi YM. Critical care management of severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2012 Feb 3;20:12.https://sjtrem.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1757-7241-20-12 不应将过度通气作为长期预防性治疗,并且在损伤后最初 24 小时内应避免使用。[7]Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery. 2017 Jan 1;80(1):6-15.https://braintrauma.org/uploads/03/12/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27654000?tool=bestpractice.com
次要干预措施包括如下:
利尿:在严重 TBI 时,为了降低难治性颅内压升高,可使用甘露醇或高渗盐水。目前证据不足,无法推荐哪一种渗透剂优于另外一种。[7]Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery. 2017 Jan 1;80(1):6-15.https://braintrauma.org/uploads/03/12/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27654000?tool=bestpractice.com甘露醇是可以增加血容量,降低血液黏稠度,有强大的利尿作用,可显著降低颅内容量。高渗盐水促使自由水穿过血脑屏障,从而减少颅内容量。
对于最大程度标准治疗无法控制的 ICP 升高,推荐采用大剂量巴比妥类药物。[7]Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery. 2017 Jan 1;80(1):6-15.https://braintrauma.org/uploads/03/12/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27654000?tool=bestpractice.com 大剂量巴比妥类治疗一般能降低全身血压,为了预防或改善全身性低血压,可能需要补充容量或使用血管活性剂。[72]Mellion SA, Bennett KS, Ellsworth GL, et al. High-dose barbiturates for refractory intracranial hypertension in children with severe traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2013 Mar;14(3):239-47.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23392360?tool=bestpractice.com
传统上,对于 GCS <9 和 CT 上有损伤证据的 TBI 患者,需要监测颅内压。在有运动受限且收缩压 ≤ 90 mmHg 的 TBI 患者中,即使 CT 正常,也需要监测 ICP。[73]Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, et al; Surgical Management of Traumatic Brain Injury Author Group. Surgical management of traumatic parenchymal lesions. Neurosurgery. 2006 Mar;58(3 Suppl):S25-46; discussion Si-iv.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16540746?tool=bestpractice.com 一项研究对是否用 ICP 监测优于 CT 检查和临床体格检查提出了质疑,而另一项研究介绍了使用 MAP 和 ICP 进行动态监测,预测持续升高的 ICP 的理念。[74]Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Carney N, et al. A trial of intracranial-pressure monitoring in traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2012 Dec 27;367(26):2471-81.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23234472?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Güiza F, Depreitere B, Piper I, et al. Novel methods to predict increased intracranial pressure during intensive care and long-term neurologic outcome after traumatic brain injury: development and validation in a multicenter dataset. Crit Care Med. 2013 Feb;41(2):554-64.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23263587?tool=bestpractice.com
去骨瓣减压术。应首先优化医疗管理。尽管没有统一的适应征,但一般来说,去骨瓣手术的指征如下:[73]Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, et al; Surgical Management of Traumatic Brain Injury Author Group. Surgical management of traumatic parenchymal lesions. Neurosurgery. 2006 Mar;58(3 Suppl):S25-46; discussion Si-iv.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16540746?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Sahuquillo J, Martínez-Ricarte F, Poca MA. Decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury after the DECRA trial. Where do we stand? Curr Opin Crit Care. 2013 Apr;19(2):101-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23422159?tool=bestpractice.com
硬膜外血肿:任何大小的血肿与局灶性神经功能缺损和 GCS 评分<9;硬膜外血肿>30 cm
硬膜下血肿:SDH 厚度>10 mm;SDH 中线移位>5 mm;如果 ICP>20 mmHg,任何 GCS<9 的 SDH
脑挫伤或脑实质内出血:病灶体积为≥20 cm³,中线移位≥5 mm;任何病灶的体积≥50 cm³
后颅窝出血或血肿:病变压迫第四脑室、基底池或有梗阻性脑积水的存在。
低温和激素对治疗外伤性颅脑损伤无效。[35]Roberts I, Yates D, Sandercock P, et al; CRASH trial collaborators. Effect of intravenous corticosteroids on death within 14 days in 10008 adults with clinically significant head injury (MRC CRASH trial): randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004 Oct 9-15;364(9442):1321-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15474134?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Clifton GL, Valadka A, Zygun D, et al. Very early hypothermia induction in patients with severe brain injury (the National Acute Brain Injury Study: Hypothermia II): a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol. 2011 Feb;10(2):131-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21169065?tool=bestpractice.com
凝血功能障碍:之前存在
之前存在凝血功能障碍患者的临床结局比一般人群更差。逆转剂是用于血栓前状态的药物,但是,很多患者尽管迅速逆转,临床结局依然不佳。[78]Dowlatshahi D, Butcher KS, Asdaghi N, et al. Poor prognosis in warfarin-associated intracranial hemorrhage despite anticoagulation reversal. Stroke. 2012 Jul;43(7):1812-7.http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/43/7/1812.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22556194?tool=bestpractice.com
可使用维生素 K(对华法林相关 INR 延长的患者有效)、新鲜冰冻血浆 (FFP)、血小板(血小板计数>100,000/μL)、冷沉淀(用于治疗纤维蛋白原水平低的患者)、鱼精蛋白(用于使用肝素的患者)、活化凝血因子 VIIa 和凝血酶原复合物浓缩制剂纠正凝血功能障碍。[78]Dowlatshahi D, Butcher KS, Asdaghi N, et al. Poor prognosis in warfarin-associated intracranial hemorrhage despite anticoagulation reversal. Stroke. 2012 Jul;43(7):1812-7.http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/43/7/1812.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22556194?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Sun Y, Wang J, Wu X, et al. Validating the incidence of coagulopathy and disseminated intravascular coagulation in patients with traumatic brain injury - analysis of 242 cases. Br J Neurosurg. 2011 Jun;25(3):363-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21355766?tool=bestpractice.com
凝血功能障碍:TBI 引发
TBI 与整个凝血级联中的异常密切相关,已证实,PT 延长是 TBI 后临床结局差的独立危险因素。[80]Murray GD, Butcher I, McHugh GS, et al. Multivariable prognostic analysis in traumatic brain injury: results from the IMPACT study. J Neurotrauma. 2007 Feb;24(2):329-37.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17375997?tool=bestpractice.com 尽管 FFP 已成为外伤引发凝血功能障碍的标准治疗的一部分,但最近提倡使用凝血酶原复合物,因为浓缩程度更高。[81]Laroche M, Kutcher ME, Huang MC, et al. Coagulopathy after traumatic brain injury. Neurosurgery. 2012 Jun;70(6):1334-45.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22307074?tool=bestpractice.com 已证实,重组活化 VIIa 可减少继发于 TBI 的凝血功能障碍患者对浓缩红细胞和血浆的输注需求,但尚未证实可持续改善临床结局。[79]Sun Y, Wang J, Wu X, et al. Validating the incidence of coagulopathy and disseminated intravascular coagulation in patients with traumatic brain injury - analysis of 242 cases. Br J Neurosurg. 2011 Jun;25(3):363-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21355766?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Brown CV, Sowery L, Curry E, et al. Recombinant factor VIIa to correct coagulopathy in patients with traumatic brain injury presenting to outlying facilities before transfer to the regional trauma center. Am Surg. 2012 Jan;78(1):57-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22273315?tool=bestpractice.com CRASH-2 试验证实将氨甲环酸 (tranexamic acid, TXA) 用于治疗创伤性出血患者可取得积极结果,但是未表明该治疗能改善 TBI 患者的结局。[83]Roberts I, Shakur H, Coats T, et al. The CRASH-2 trial: a randomised controlled trial and economic evaluation of the effects of tranexamic acid on death, vascular occlusive events and transfusion requirement in bleeding trauma patients. Health Technol Assess. 2013 Mar;17(10):1-79.https://www.journalslibrary.nihr.ac.uk/hta/hta17100/#/abstracthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23477634?tool=bestpractice.com[84]Yutthakasemsunt S, Kittiwatanagul W, Piyavechvirat P, et al. Tranexamic acid for patients with traumatic brain injury: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. BMC Emerg Med. 2013 Nov 22;13:20.https://bmcemergmed.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-227X-13-20http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24267513?tool=bestpractice.com
分诊到合适的医院
若患者是在院前或无神经外科条件的社区医院接受病情评估,医疗人员应该注意患者是否有转往具备神经外科条件的医院的指征。在英国,NICE 指南推荐如果患者在受到颅脑损伤后,如果出现一些症状和体征,都应转运到急救医院的急诊部。[20]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Head injury: assessment and early management. Jun 2017 [internet publication].http://www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/CG176NICE: head injury overview 在美国,颅脑外伤基金会指南建议所有的地区都应该有一个系统的创伤救治体系方案,以指导重型颅脑损伤救治转运的目的地。[53]Badjatia N, Carney N, Crocco TJ, et al; Brain Trauma Foundation; BTF Center for Guidelines Management. Guidelines for prehospital management of traumatic brain injury 2nd edition. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2008;12(suppl 1):S1-52.https://www.braintrauma.org/uploads/04/13/Prehospital_Guidelines_2nd_Edition_2.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18203044?tool=bestpractice.com
颅脑损伤后的监测
颅脑创伤后的监测将取决于临床表现和诊断性检查的结果。中度或重度 TBI 患者应该被送往具备神经外科和 ICU 的医院,从而能够通过监测识别和限制继发性脑损伤。大多数多发伤和/或神经系统查体异常的急诊患者,住院有助于患者诊断并有可能重新行临床影像学检查。一篇系统评价发现,初始 CT 检查异常的轻微/轻度 TBI 患者并不能通过常规 CT 复查获益,但应在神经功能恶化时重新行影像学检查。[85]Almenawer SA, Bogza I, Yarascavitch B, et al. The value of scheduled repeat cranial computed tomography after mild head injury: single-center series and meta-analysis. Neurosurgery. 2013 Jan;72(1):56-62; discussion 63-64.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23254767?tool=bestpractice.com
神经系统检查阴性,且 CT 扫描正常的患者(或未进行扫描),可以在专人负责观察 2 小时后出院。[86]Blostein P, Jones SJ. Identification and evaluation of patients with mild traumatic brain injury: results of a national survey of level I trauma centers. J Trauma. 2003 Sep;55(3):450-3.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14501885?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Stiell IG, Clement CM, Rowe BH, et al. Comparison of the Canadian CT Head Rule and the New Orleans Criteria in patients with minor head injury. JAMA. 2005 Sep 28;294(12):1511-8.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/201596http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16189364?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Servadei F, Teasdale G, Merry G. Defining acute mild head injury in adults: a proposal based on prognostic factors, diagnosis, and management. J Neurotrauma. 2001 Jul;18(7):657-64.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11497092?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Ropper AH, Gorson KC. Clinical practice: concussion. N Engl J Med. 2007 Jan 11;356(2):166-72.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMcp064645http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17215534?tool=bestpractice.com 出院时应向患者提供有关症状和体征的书面信息,一旦出现应及时回到急诊室,这些症状和体征包括局限性无力、持续或加重的头痛或呕吐、意识降低、流涕、耳漏或躁动。