传统上复发性流产的检测从连续流产三次之后开始。但是,根据医生的判断及孕妇年龄等其他因素存在时,检测可以在两次流产后开始。流产两次后发现的病因患病率和频率与流产 3 次或更多次后的相似。[3]Habayeb OM, Konje JC. The one-stop recurrent miscarriage clinic: an evaluation of its effectiveness and outcome. Hum Reprod. 2004;19:2952-2958.http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/12/2952http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15388685?tool=bestpractice.com
病史
确诊复发性流产的临床及发现其潜在病因需要询问病史。询问病史时以采集常规人口数据作为开始,例如:
尽管这些信息比较敏感,应了解产妇既往所有妊娠的父方信息,及产妇配偶以前是否育有其他孩子的情况。需要确定每次妊娠的详细情况,尤其是包括流产及活产在内的妊娠时间顺序。所有流产者的病史均要包括:
流产时的孕龄
如何确定流产诊断
超声结果
流产的处理细节
胎儿染色体检查结果
根据病史,流产可以分为:[54]European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) Special Interest Group for Early Pregnancy. Recurrent pregnancy loss. November 2017 [internet publication].https://www.eshre.eu/Guidelines-and-Legal/Guidelines/Recurrent-pregnancy-loss.aspx
生化妊娠(只有尿液及血清 HCG 阳性)
空妊娠囊(超声只见到胎囊内有极少的胚胎结构)
胚胎停育(之前有过胎心,现无胎心)
流产也可分为:
早期流产(妊娠12周末之前终止)
晚期流产(妊娠12周之后终止者)
妊娠 24 周之后的流产为死产。这些信息可帮助确定可能的病因以及所需进一步评估的类型。[54]European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) Special Interest Group for Early Pregnancy. Recurrent pregnancy loss. November 2017 [internet publication].https://www.eshre.eu/Guidelines-and-Legal/Guidelines/Recurrent-pregnancy-loss.aspx 询问患者是否为防止复发性流产做过任何治疗也很重要。
相似地,活产也需要明确下列信息:
分娩时胎龄
孕期及分娩期并发症
分娩方式
胎儿体重
婴儿目前的健康状况
妇科病史需包括:
完整的月经史,包括末次月经、月经周期及其规律性、经期症状
宫颈涂片及之前异常涂片的治疗史,如LLETZ(移行带大环形切除)或锥切活检。
避孕史,如避孕工具、使用时间及其不良反应(如有相关性)。
既往盆腔炎性疾病史
不孕治疗史(促排卵或助孕)
既往病史必须包含:
手术史应包括:
既往史还应包括规律服药史及药物过敏史。重点询问叶酸服用情况,如患者准备妊娠,应建议其每日服用400 μg。个人史应包括吸烟状况及每日吸烟量、饮酒量及咖啡因摄入量。
体格检查
应对患者进行全身体格检查,包括计算体重指数 (BMI)。应注意有无多毛、痤疮(提示可能有多囊卵巢综合征)。常规做腹部触诊以排除大型包块如纤维肌瘤。窥具打开阴道检查可排除明显的宫颈形态异常。行双合诊检查可评估子宫大小及是否存在附件包块。[55]Queensland Maternal and Neonatal Clinical Guidelines Programme. Early pregnancy loss. May 2018 [internet publication].https://www.health.qld.gov.au/qcg/publications
实验室检查
复发性特发性流产在复发性流产中最为常见,当所有检查均正常或阴性时即可诊断,是一种排除性诊断。对于复发性流产来说实验室检查最为重要,检查结果可能提示其病因。选择检查项目的理由应是循证的,重点关注可能的致病因素以及能改善妊娠结局的可用治疗方法。[9]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. The investigation and treatment of couples with recurrent first-trimester and second-trimester miscarriage. April 2011. http://www.rcog.org.uk (last accessed 6 April 2017).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_17.pdf
所有复发性流产患者行初次血化验时均应包括:
尽管指南不推荐常规筛查无症状的甲状腺疾病、糖尿病和高泌乳素血症,但这些疾病治疗方法简单,治疗后可能改善妊娠结局。因此很多医院常规筛查这些疾病。
进行血栓形成倾向的筛查(凝血因子 V Leiden 基因突变、凝血酶原 G20210A 基因突变、蛋白 S 和蛋白 C 检查、活化蛋白 C 抵抗检查及抗凝血酶检查)可能发现相关疾病。[9]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. The investigation and treatment of couples with recurrent first-trimester and second-trimester miscarriage. April 2011. http://www.rcog.org.uk (last accessed 6 April 2017).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_17.pdf[22]Jauniaux E, Farquharson RG, Christiansen OB, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for the investigation and medical treatment of recurrent miscarriage. Hum Reprod. 2006;21:2216-2222.http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/9/2216.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16707507?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Bradley LA, Palomaki GE, Bienstock J, et al. Can Factor V Leiden and prothrombin G20210A testing in women with recurrent pregnancy loss result in improved pregnancy outcomes?: Results from a targeted evidence-based review. Genet Med. 2012;14:39-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22237430?tool=bestpractice.com 美国生殖医学会 (American Society for Reproductive Medicine) 认为,患者如有静脉血栓栓塞史或其一级亲属疑或有易栓症,则推荐筛查,否则不推荐。[57]Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Evaluation and treatment of recurrent pregnancy loss: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril. 2012;98:1103-1111.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22835448?tool=bestpractice.com
没有证据表明需要常规筛查各种自身抗体(例如抗核抗体、线粒体抗体、平滑肌抗体等)及甲状腺抗体,因其与复发性流产关系不明和/或无推荐的可用治疗方法。类似地,除非科研需要,否则不应进行自然杀伤细胞检查。[58]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. The role of natural killer cells in human fertility. Scientific impact paper no. 53. December 2016. http://www.rcog.org.uk/ (last accessed 6 April 2017).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/scientific-impact-papers/sip_53.pdf
检测流产胎儿的染色体很重要,因为发现异常染色体可以对未来妊娠有更好的预测,并可更加确信患者此次流产是随机事件。第二次流产后通常建议患者在做其他检测之前做细胞遗传学分析,如果妊娠产物异常,则表明流产原因为染色体异常,则不建议做进一步病情检查。此种策略经常用于高龄女性,因为这些女性中非整倍体的发生率较高。[59]Foyouzi N, Cedars MI, Huddleston HG. Cost-effectiveness of cytogenetic evaluation of products of conception in the patient with a second pregnancy loss. Fertil Steril. 2012;98:151-155.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22748232?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Bernardi LA, Plunkett BA, Stephenson MD. Is chromosome testing of the second miscarriage cost saving? A decision analysis of selective versus universal recurrent pregnancy loss evaluation. Fertil Steril. 2012;98:156-161.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22516510?tool=bestpractice.com 染色体微序列分析与核型分析相比,具有更高的异常染色体检出率,但很多异常变异型意义不明。[61]Dhillon RK, Hillman SC, Morris RK, et al. Additional information from chromosomal microarray analysis (CMA) over conventional karyotyping when diagnosing chromosomal abnormalities in miscarriage: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 2014;121:11-21.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.12382/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23859082?tool=bestpractice.com
另一种细胞遗传学检测为检测父母双方核型以排除平衡易位。尽管了解这个问题后可以进行遗传咨询,但这不一定能改变治疗计划,因为主动干预还包括体外授精 (in-vitro fertilisation, IVF) 联合或不联合植入前基因诊断,以更换仅染色体正常的胚胎,但这样的做法没有被证实能提高活产率。[62]Platteau P, Staessen C, Michiels A, et al. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis for aneuploidy screening in patients with unexplained recurrent miscarriages. Fertil Steril. 2005;83:393-397.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15705380?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Audibert F, Wilson RD, Allen V, et al. Preimplantation genetic testing. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2009;31:761-775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19772712?tool=bestpractice.com[64]ESHRE Capri Workshop Group. Genetic aspects of female reproduction. Hum Reprod Update. 2008;14:293-307.http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/content/14/4/293.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18385259?tool=bestpractice.com 而且这些夫妇之后的妊娠结局令人满意,活产率为 70%。因此不建议针对染色体异常进行常规的父母双方核型检查,只有在受孕产物的核型有不平衡的染色体结构异常时才进行该检查。[9]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. The investigation and treatment of couples with recurrent first-trimester and second-trimester miscarriage. April 2011. http://www.rcog.org.uk (last accessed 6 April 2017).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_17.pdf
为检测阴道感染(包括细菌性阴道病)而普遍对每例复发性流产患者进行高位阴道拭子并不必要,或者没有益处,除非患者有盆腔感染症状或有妊娠中期流产史。[43]Summers PR. Microbiology relevant to recurrent miscarriage. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1994;37:722-729.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7955656?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Brocklehurst P, Gordon A, Heatley E, et al. Antibiotics for treating bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(1):CD000262.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000262.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23440777?tool=bestpractice.com 因为有晚期流产史患者在孕早期筛查并治疗细菌性阴道病,可降低晚期流产或早产的风险。[65]Brocklehurst P, Gordon A, Heatley E, et al. Antibiotics for treating bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(1):CD000262.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000262.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23440777?tool=bestpractice.com
影像学及手术检查
指南推荐对所有患者均行 2D 盆腔超声扫描(经腹或经阴道),将其作为初始检查的一部分,以排除明显的先天性子宫畸形,并评估双侧卵巢形态。[9]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. The investigation and treatment of couples with recurrent first-trimester and second-trimester miscarriage. April 2011. http://www.rcog.org.uk (last accessed 6 April 2017).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_17.pdf 然而,子宫畸形及多囊卵巢综合征的治疗及结局对下次妊娠的作用尚无定论,并且患者在进行超声扫描之前应知晓此种情况。
患者行超声检查之前应被充分告知。子宫输卵管造影在以往用作宫腔形态检查的诊断工具,但此项检查令患者有不适症状并将其暴露于辐射中,更有引起患者造影剂过敏的风险及加重盆腔炎性疾病的可能。因此,它不再被通常用作子宫异常的筛查工具。[66]Saravelos SH, Cocksedge KA, Li TC. Prevalence and diagnosis of congenital uterine anomalies in women with reproductive failure: a critical appraisal. Hum Reprod Update. 2008;14:415-429.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539641?tool=bestpractice.com
子宫腔超声造影或宫腔盐水灌注超声造影是另一种用于检查宫腔内轮廓的成像技术。尽管在诊断子宫畸形时,相比于子宫输卵管造影,此检查减少了患者痛苦且更加准确,但这却是有创检查,尚未得到广泛应用。[66]Saravelos SH, Cocksedge KA, Li TC. Prevalence and diagnosis of congenital uterine anomalies in women with reproductive failure: a critical appraisal. Hum Reprod Update. 2008;14:415-429.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539641?tool=bestpractice.com
3D超声检查技术的提高和应用很有前景,因其不仅无创,且能诊断精确并将子宫先天畸形详细分类。而且,此检查具有可重复性,因其测量值是机械转换器自动生成故不依赖于操作者。这项检查可能会令医生不再考虑任何手术探查,例如宫腔镜或诊断性腹腔镜检查。[66]Saravelos SH, Cocksedge KA, Li TC. Prevalence and diagnosis of congenital uterine anomalies in women with reproductive failure: a critical appraisal. Hum Reprod Update. 2008;14:415-429.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18539641?tool=bestpractice.com 但是目前3D扫描在妇科领域尚未广泛使用,因为设备昂贵,且应先进行技术培训。
对于妊娠中期流产患者或有病史提示宫颈机能不全的患者,在妊娠中期可行经阴道超声检查,并且此后连续进行该检查,以评估宫颈长度,因为这可以预测早产风险。[67]Crane JM, Hutchens D. Transvaginal sonographic measurement of cervical length to predict preterm birth in asymptomatic women at increased risk: a systematic review. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2008;31:579-587.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18412093?tool=bestpractice.com 在非妊娠状态,没有证据表明测量宫颈长度对预测下次妊娠结果有益。妊娠中期宫颈长度超过 25 mm,与较低的早产风险相关。[67]Crane JM, Hutchens D. Transvaginal sonographic measurement of cervical length to predict preterm birth in asymptomatic women at increased risk: a systematic review. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2008;31:579-587.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18412093?tool=bestpractice.com
手术检查(宫腔镜或诊断性腹腔镜)通常只在前述检查均阴性时进行。即便如此,除非有手术指征否则也不常规进行。宫腔镜只在子宫形态异常诊断不确定时进行检查,并同时可行治疗,例如子宫内膜息肉切除、宫腔粘连、恢复宫腔正常形态等。[17]Grimbizis GF, Camus M, Tarlatzis BC, et al. Clinical implications of uterine malformations and hysteroscopic treatment results. Hum Reprod Update. 2001;7:161-174.http://humupd.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/7/2/161http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11284660?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Valli E, Vaquero E, Lazzarin N, et al. Hysteroscopic metroplasty improves gestational outcome in women with recurrent spontaneous abortion. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc. 2004;11:240-244.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15200782?tool=bestpractice.com 与此相似,传统上诊断性腹腔镜被用于诊断双角子宫,但随着超声技术的进步,现在很少因该指征而使用诊断性腹腔镜检查。