口腔溃疡的病因很多,可大致分为以下几类:创伤、代谢、皮肤病、过敏、免疫、感染和肿瘤。然而,在某些病例中,病因可能重叠,以至于找不出具体的病因。比如,常见的复发性阿弗他溃疡(RAS),与多种可能的病因有关,包括:遗传易感性、应激、外伤、感染、过敏和营养缺乏。[3]McCullough MJ, Abdel-Hafeth S, Scully C. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis revisited: clinical features, associations, and new association with infant feeding practices? J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:615-620.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17944755?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Scully C. Clinical practice: aphthous ulceration. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:165-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16837680?tool=bestpractice.com 这些病因均未得到确证。
创伤因素
创伤可导致口腔黏膜的即刻或延迟损害。损伤可能是意外损伤或医源性损伤,其来源可能是机械性损伤、热损伤或电击伤。[5]Ozcelik O, Haytac MC, Akkaya M. Iatrogenic trauma to oral tissues. J Periodontol. 2005;76:1793-1797.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16253103?tool=bestpractice.com
意外损伤引起溃疡的可能原因包括:[6]Smith CJ. An approach to dealing with mucosal damage. J Am Dent Assoc. 1991;122:73-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1999611?tool=bestpractice.com
在咀嚼或者言语时,意外咬伤颊部或舌头。
不正确的刷牙方式导致牙龈溃疡。
化学品/药物(例如:全效过氧化氢直接接触黏膜,或口含阿司匹林而不是吞咽)。
饮料或食物太烫或太冷导致的热灼伤和冷冻伤。
新生儿诞生牙或新生牙(Riga-Fede 病)。[7]Ceyhan AM, Yildirim M, Basak PY, et al. Traumatic lingual ulcer in a child: Riga-Fede disease. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34:186-188.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19187299?tool=bestpractice.com
医源性因素(临床/牙科治疗导致)
由过度操作或意外的直接组织损伤所致。许多病例在操作时并不明显,直到局部或者全身麻醉结束,患者恢复知觉后才发现。创伤可能的来源包括器械性损伤(例如:牙钻、激光、电刀、刀片)、化学性损伤(例如:冲洗液、外用药、消毒剂)和
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 外用阿司匹林烧伤由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends].物理性损伤(例如:新安放的矫治器、支托和托槽)。[5]Ozcelik O, Haytac MC, Akkaya M. Iatrogenic trauma to oral tissues. J Periodontol. 2005;76:1793-1797.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16253103?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Smith CJ. An approach to dealing with mucosal damage. J Am Dent Assoc. 1991;122:73-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1999611?tool=bestpractice.com
自我伤害
自伤性溃疡反复发作的患者,可能同时伴有精神异常、发育障碍或者综合征。[8]Medina AC, Sogbe R, Gomez-Rey AM, et al. Factitial oral lesions in an autistic paediatric patient. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2003;13:130-137.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12605633?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com 这类疾病包括遗传病(例如:Lesch-Nyhan 综合征、Cornelia de Lange 综合征、Tourette 综合征、家族性自主神经功能异常、先天性痛觉缺失综合征、XXXXXY 综合征、XXY 综合征、三体综合征)、精神病(例如:孟乔森综合征)、脑炎、昏迷、延髓性麻痹、自闭症和发育迟缓。[8]Medina AC, Sogbe R, Gomez-Rey AM, et al. Factitial oral lesions in an autistic paediatric patient. Int J Paediatr Dent. 2003;13:130-137.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12605633?tool=bestpractice.com患者的自伤行为可以是无意识的(如脑炎患者),也可以是强迫性的(如精神病患者)。
营养因素
上皮萎缩、易发溃疡,是铁/叶酸/维生素 B12 缺乏的主要特征之一。[9]Lu SY, Wu HC. Initial diagnosis of anemia from sore mouth and improved classification of anemias by MCV and RDW in 30 patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2004;98:679-685.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15583540?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Piskin S, Sayan C, Durukan N, et al. Serum iron, ferritin, folic acid, and vitamin B12 levels in recurrent aphthous stomatitis. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2002;16:66-67.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11952294?tool=bestpractice.com
铁缺乏症可导致免疫功能受损以及上皮异常。女性易患该病。铁缺乏症患者中,男性较少见。如果出现,则提示隐匿性出血(例如:出血性溃疡、胃肠道恶性肿瘤)。患者此前可能有节食、酗酒史、贫血及肠道吸收功能失调病史(例如:克罗恩氏病、乳糜泻、溃疡性结肠炎)。患者可能同时存在以下全身症状和体征:苍白、疲乏、不适、呼吸急促、心动过速、头痛和易怒。[11]Patton LL. Hematologic diseases. In: Greenberg MS, Glick M, Ship JA, ed. Burket's oral medicine. 11th ed. Hamilton, Canada: BC Decker; 2008:385-410.[12]Huber MA, Hall EH. Glossodynia in patients with nutritional deficiencies. Ear Nose Throat J. 1989;68:771-775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2693058?tool=bestpractice.com累及舌部的慢性溃疡(舌炎)常常有口角炎和黏膜苍白。
叶酸和维生素 B12 是 DNA 合成所必须的营养素。两者之一或两者同时缺乏可导致巨幼细胞性贫血。[9]Lu SY, Wu HC. Initial diagnosis of anemia from sore mouth and improved classification of anemias by MCV and RDW in 30 patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2004;98:679-685.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15583540?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Pontes HA, Neto NC, Ferreira KB, et al. Oral manifestations of vitamin B12 deficiency: a case report. J Can Dent Assoc. 2009;75:533-537.http://www.cda-adc.ca/jcda/vol-75/issue-7/533.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19744365?tool=bestpractice.com患者可出现慢性非特异性黏膜溃疡、牛肉舌以及口角炎。叶酸缺乏通常由饮食缺乏引起,而维生素 B12 缺乏通常由抗壁细胞抗体引起,该抗体会阻碍 B12 的吸收(恶性贫血)。[11]Patton LL. Hematologic diseases. In: Greenberg MS, Glick M, Ship JA, ed. Burket's oral medicine. 11th ed. Hamilton, Canada: BC Decker; 2008:385-410.[13]Pontes HA, Neto NC, Ferreira KB, et al. Oral manifestations of vitamin B12 deficiency: a case report. J Can Dent Assoc. 2009;75:533-537.http://www.cda-adc.ca/jcda/vol-75/issue-7/533.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19744365?tool=bestpractice.com 在开始治疗前,准确鉴别贫血的原因十分重要。尽管补充叶酸可以改善巨幼细胞性贫血(无论由哪种缺乏引起),但它并不能改善恶性贫血相关的神经系统病变。[12]Huber MA, Hall EH. Glossodynia in patients with nutritional deficiencies. Ear Nose Throat J. 1989;68:771-775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2693058?tool=bestpractice.com
胶原蛋白的合成和血管完整性需要维生素 C。[14]Olmedo JM, Yiannias JA, Windgassen EB, et al. Scurvy: a disease almost forgotten. Int J Dermatol. 2006;45:909-913.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16911372?tool=bestpractice.com维生素 C 缺乏症患者可出现牙龈水肿、出血、溃疡、口腔继发性细菌感染和牙齿松动。[12]Huber MA, Hall EH. Glossodynia in patients with nutritional deficiencies. Ear Nose Throat J. 1989;68:771-775.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2693058?tool=bestpractice.com多数病例在补充维生素 C 后症状可消退。
皮肤病因素
多种皮肤病可有口腔溃疡表现。当口腔溃疡同时伴有皮肤病损时,常能够及时诊断。然而,临床医生必须牢记,皮肤病相关的口腔溃疡,不一定同时伴有皮肤病损。这类溃疡通常为慢性溃疡,明确病因后可适当转诊并治疗。较常见的疾病包括口腔扁平苔藓、寻常型天疱疮以及黏膜类天疱疮。较少见的疾病包括慢性溃疡性口炎、副肿瘤性天疱疮、获得性大疱性表皮松解症、红斑狼疮以及线状 IgA 大疱性皮肤病。[15]Orteu CH, Buchanan JA, Hutchison I, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus presenting with oral mucosal lesions: easily missed? Br J Dermatol. 2001;144:1219-1223.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11422045?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Sami N, Yeh SW, Ahmed AR. Blistering diseases in the elderly: diagnosis and treatment. Dermatol Clin. 2004;22:73-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15018011?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Solomon LW. Chronic ulcerative stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2008;14:383-389.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593454?tool=bestpractice.com 免疫荧光对自身免疫性大疱性皮肤病的诊断十分重要。[18]Eming R, Hertl M. Autoimmune Diagnostics Working Group. Autoimmune bullous disorders. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2006;44:144-149.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16475898?tool=bestpractice.com
扁平苔藓:一种常见的由 T 细胞介导的皮肤病。[19]Al-Hashimi I, Schifter M, Lockhart PB, et al. Oral lichen planus and oral lichenoid lesions: diagnostic and therapeutic considerations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(suppl 25):e1-e12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17261375?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Eisen D, Carrozzo M, Bagan Sebastian JV, et al. Number V oral lichen planus: clinical features and management. Oral Dis. 2005;11:338-349.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16269024?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Huber MA. Oral lichen planus. Quintessence Int. 2004;35:731-752.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15470998?tool=bestpractice.com仅有口腔病损的皮肤病比较常见,大约占15%~35%。[21]Huber MA. Oral lichen planus. Quintessence Int. 2004;35:731-752.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15470998?tool=bestpractice.com女性比男性更易感(2:1)。任何年龄均可发病,但最常见于中年人。口内最常累及的部位是颊黏膜,其次是舌、唇、口底、腭部和牙龈。病损可多发,呈双侧对称性分布,可表现为单独、或混合性网状(线状、丘疹状、斑块状)、糜烂或溃疡损害。常出现典型的白色网状条纹(Wickham 纹)。[20]Eisen D, Carrozzo M, Bagan Sebastian JV, et al. Number V oral lichen planus: clinical features and management. Oral Dis. 2005;11:338-349.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16269024?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Huber MA. Oral lichen planus. Quintessence Int. 2004;35:731-752.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15470998?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 口腔扁平苔藓由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends]. 单纯的网纹型损害通常没有任何症状,常在常规体检时偶然发现。糜烂和/或溃疡型损害一般会有疼痛,患者会主动寻求治疗。
天疱疮:一组自身免疫性大疱性疾病。寻常型天疱疮 (PV) 和副肿瘤性天疱疮可累及皮肤及口、眼、鼻咽部和食管的黏膜表面。PV 罕见、但可致命,以上皮内疱为特征,年发病率为 1~5/100 万。[22]Black M, Mignogna MD, Scully C. Number II: pemphigus vulgaris. Oral Dis. 2005;11:119-130.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888101?tool=bestpractice.com该病没有性别倾向性,40~60 岁高发。德系犹太人和地中海地区人群对 PV 有明显的遗传易感性。[23]Edgin WA, Pratt TC, Grimwood RE. Pemphigus vulgaris and paraneoplastic pemphigus. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:577-584.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940624?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 寻常型天疱疮,女性,65岁由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends]. 大约90%的病例表现为慢性口腔溃疡,口内容易受伤的部位(例如:颊黏膜、舌、腭)最常被累及。大于50%的病例首先出现口腔损害。[24]Dagistan S, Goregen M, Miloglu O, et al. Oral pemphigus vulgaris: a case report with review of the literature. J Oral Sci. 2008;50:359-362.https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/josnusd/50/3/50_3_359/_pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18818476?tool=bestpractice.com[25]DeRossi SS, Salazar G, Sarin J, et al. Chronic lesions of the gingiva and mucosa. J Am Dent Assoc. 2007;138:1589-1592.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18056103?tool=bestpractice.com 典型的口腔损害为疼痛性糜烂/溃疡,带有上皮坏死形成的不规则边缘,部分由一层脆弱的膜覆盖。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com由于疱壁易脆,在口内很难看到完整的大疱。尼氏征常为阳性(例如:轻轻摩擦皮肤即可导致表皮片状剥落)。可伴有皮肤或眼部损害,以及鼻咽部和食管损害。有两种自身抗体与PV有关,它们的相对含量决定了该病的临床表型。抗桥粒芯蛋白1与皮肤损害有关,抗桥粒芯蛋白3与黏膜(口腔)损害有关。[23]Edgin WA, Pratt TC, Grimwood RE. Pemphigus vulgaris and paraneoplastic pemphigus. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:577-584.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940624?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Tampoia M, Giavarina D, Di Giorgio C, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) to detect anti-skin autoantibodies in autoimmune blistering skin diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2012;12:121-126.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22781589?tool=bestpractice.com 副肿瘤性天疱疮在所有类型天疱疮中最不常见,但病情最严重。[23]Edgin WA, Pratt TC, Grimwood RE. Pemphigus vulgaris and paraneoplastic pemphigus. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:577-584.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940624?tool=bestpractice.com大部分病例已患有恶性肿瘤。临床体征包括累及牙龈、颊黏膜、舌部和腭部的急性或者慢性口腔疼痛(松弛性大疱、不规则糜烂、溃疡)、眼部症状(结膜炎、 睑球粘连)以及并发皮肤损害。
黏膜类天疱疮(MMP):一组少见的、免疫介导的、以上皮下疱为特征的疾病。[27]Bagan J, Lo Muzio L, Scully C. Mucosal disease series: number III: mucous membrane pemphigoid. Oral Dis. 2005;11:197-218.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15984952?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Knudson RM, Kalaaji AN, Bruce AJ. The management of mucous membrane pemphigoid and pemphigus. Dermatol Ther. 2010;23:268-280.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20597945?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 黏膜类天疱疮,女性,53岁由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends].MMP的发病与抗BP 180和BP 230自身抗体有关。[26]Tampoia M, Giavarina D, Di Giorgio C, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) to detect anti-skin autoantibodies in autoimmune blistering skin diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2012;12:121-126.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22781589?tool=bestpractice.com其年发病率为 50-83/100万。[28]Knudson RM, Kalaaji AN, Bruce AJ. The management of mucous membrane pemphigoid and pemphigus. Dermatol Ther. 2010;23:268-280.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20597945?tool=bestpractice.com女性比男性更易感,好发年龄为51~62岁。[27]Bagan J, Lo Muzio L, Scully C. Mucosal disease series: number III: mucous membrane pemphigoid. Oral Dis. 2005;11:197-218.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15984952?tool=bestpractice.comMMP主要累及口腔和结膜。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com高达40%的患者眼睛受累,可导致瘢痕形成和失明。[29]Scully C, Lo Muzio L. Oral mucosal diseases: mucous membrane pemphigoid. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;46:358-366.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17804127?tool=bestpractice.comMMP最常见的口腔表现是剥脱性龈炎(牙龈火红、萎缩、易碎)。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com尼氏征一般为阳性。
线状IgA大疱性皮肤病:一种少见的、免疫介导的、以上皮下疱为特征的疾病,通常发生于5岁以下儿童和>60岁成人。[30]Patrício P, Ferreira C, Gomes MM, et al. Autoimmune bullous dermatoses: a review. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2009;1173:203-210.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19758152?tool=bestpractice.com发痒的丘疹、小疱及大疱通常对称分布于躯干和四肢。[30]Patrício P, Ferreira C, Gomes MM, et al. Autoimmune bullous dermatoses: a review. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2009;1173:203-210.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19758152?tool=bestpractice.com典型病损呈串珠样(荨麻疹样斑块,周围有小疱环绕)。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com黏膜多累及口腔黏膜和结膜。
获得性大疱性表皮松解症:一种免疫介导的以上皮下疱为特征的疾病,临床表现与 MMP相似。皮肤脆弱,有张力性水疱,可能有瘢痕。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com累及黏膜的进行性、复发性病损,可引起不可逆的并发症,包括失明、舌粘连(结舌)及食管狭窄。
慢性溃疡性口炎:一种罕见的皮肤黏膜疾病,口腔损害主要累及舌、颊黏膜和牙龈。[17]Solomon LW. Chronic ulcerative stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2008;14:383-389.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593454?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Islam MN, Cohen DM, Ojha J, et al. Chronic ulcerative stomatitis: diagnostic and management challenges: four new cases and review of literature. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;104:194-203.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17560144?tool=bestpractice.com在组织学上与扁平苔藓相似,且可能有相似的临床表现。女性较男性易感,好发于40~59岁人群。慢性溃疡性口炎的诊断需要手术活检,用免疫荧光显微镜检查来确诊循环的和组织结合的△Np63α蛋白自身抗体,该蛋白是复层鳞状上皮的正常组分。[17]Solomon LW. Chronic ulcerative stomatitis. Oral Dis. 2008;14:383-389.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593454?tool=bestpractice.com一般对羟氯喹治疗反应较好。
过敏/中毒因素
接触性口炎:由各种局部制剂引起,包括口腔卫生产品、食品和添加剂。[32]Seymour RA, Rudralingham M. Oral and dental adverse drug reactions. Periodontol 2000. 2008;46:9-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18201343?tool=bestpractice.com常见药物包括巴比妥类、利多卡因、金盐、氯己定、青霉胺、水杨酸类和磺胺类药物。[33]Munoz-Corcuera M, Esparza-Gomez G, Gonzalez-Moles MA, et al. Oral ulcers: clinical aspects: a tool for dermatologists: part II: chronic ulcers. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34:456-461.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19522982?tool=bestpractice.com一般表现为孤立的单个溃疡,位于舌头一侧,周围充血环,常规治疗无效。患病率未知。停用可疑药剂后溃疡病损可消退。
口腔苔藓样反应:可引起这种溃疡损害的药物很多,包括牙科修复材料、调味品和一些药物(最常见的是非甾体抗炎药[NSAIDs] 和血管紧张素转换酶[ACE]抑制剂)。[20]Eisen D, Carrozzo M, Bagan Sebastian JV, et al. Number V oral lichen planus: clinical features and management. Oral Dis. 2005;11:338-349.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16269024?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Huber MA. Oral lichen planus. Quintessence Int. 2004;35:731-752.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15470998?tool=bestpractice.com这种损害常累及黏膜,表现类似于扁平苔藓。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com与修复材料有关的口腔苔藓样反应常常表现为修复材料附近(例如:汞合金充填物邻近的颊和/或牙龈黏膜)的孤立病损。即使停用可疑药物,病损也可能需要几个月才能消退,使诊断更加复杂。
抗骨质疏松药物相关性颌骨坏死(ARONJ):使用过或正在使用抗骨质疏松药物(例如:双膦酸盐类药物和地诺单抗)时出现的一种破坏性口腔疾病,表现为口腔黏膜溃疡和骨质暴露。 [34]Hellstein JW, Adler RA, Edwards B, et al. Managing the care of patients receiving antiresorptive therapy for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis: executive summary of recommendations from the American Dental Association Council on Scientific Affairs. J Am Dent Assoc. 2011;142:1243-1251.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22041409?tool=bestpractice.com大部分病例发病前有口内外伤史(例如:牙槽手术)。可能与抗骨质疏松药物对破骨细胞-成骨细胞平衡的破坏有关。长时间接受含强效氮双膦酸盐疗法的肿瘤患者风险最高。而使用低剂量抗骨质疏松药物(例如:骨质疏松症的预防用药)的患者患ARONJ的风险要低得多。常见症状是疼痛。治疗方案有限,主要针对消除疼痛、控制感染以及尽量防止疾病进一步发展。[35]Ruggiero SL, Dodson TB, Assael LA, et al. American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons position paper on bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaws - 2009 update. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;67(suppl 5):2-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19371809?tool=bestpractice.com
化学制剂/药物:可能包括漱口液、局部用药或者消毒剂。[5]Ozcelik O, Haytac MC, Akkaya M. Iatrogenic trauma to oral tissues. J Periodontol. 2005;76:1793-1797.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16253103?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Smith CJ. An approach to dealing with mucosal damage. J Am Dent Assoc. 1991;122:73-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1999611?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 外用阿司匹林烧伤由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends]. 部分化疗药物可影响黏膜组织的正常增殖和修复,患者接受此类药物化疗时可能出现口腔溃疡。常见药物包括:烷化剂、抗代谢类(影响DNA合成)、蒽环类、铂类、长春碱类及紫杉烷类药物。[36]Epstein JB, Thariat J, Bensadoun RJ, et al. Oral complications of cancer and cancer therapy: from cancer treatment to survivorship. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62:400-422.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.3322/caac.21157/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22972543?tool=bestpractice.com
多形红斑(EM):由药物过敏、感染或疾病引起的一组疾病。其特征性表现是黏膜红斑和溃疡,并伴有不同程度的皮损。[37]Al-Johani KA, Fedele S, Porter SR. Erythema multiforme and related disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103:642-654.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17344075?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Bsoul SA, Huber MA, Terezhalmy GT, et al. Clinical images in oral medicine: erythema multiforme. Quintessence Int. 2005;36:314-315.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15835429?tool=bestpractice.com包括轻型多形红斑、重型多形红斑、斯-约综合征(SJS)以及中毒性表皮坏死松解症(TEN)。[39]Farthing P, Bagan JV, Scully C. Mucosal disease series: number IV: erythema multiforme. Oral Dis. 2005;11:261-267.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16120111?tool=bestpractice.com重型多形红斑与SJS和TEN的主要区别在于它经常复发、较少发热、黏膜损伤较轻,且与胶原血管病、HIV感染或恶性肿瘤无关。[37]Al-Johani KA, Fedele S, Porter SR. Erythema multiforme and related disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103:642-654.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17344075?tool=bestpractice.comEM累及的体表面积一般少于10%。该病的总体发病率不详,因为许多轻症患者很可能没有被诊断。[37]Al-Johani KA, Fedele S, Porter SR. Erythema multiforme and related disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103:642-654.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17344075?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 多形红斑,男性,53岁由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends].TEN的年发病率约为1-2例/百万人。[40]Borchers AT, Lee JL, Naguwa SM, et al. Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2008;7:598-605.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18603022?tool=bestpractice.com
SJS:是严重的重型多形红斑,但比TEN轻。其致病和潜在死亡率较高,必须尽快诊断和治疗。[37]Al-Johani KA, Fedele S, Porter SR. Erythema multiforme and related disorders. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103:642-654.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17344075?tool=bestpractice.com:
[40]Borchers AT, Lee JL, Naguwa SM, et al. Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2008;7:598-605.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18603022?tool=bestpractice.com诊断主要依靠典型的临床表现和皮肤活检。SJS的年发病率约为每年 1-6/100 万。[40]Borchers AT, Lee JL, Naguwa SM, et al. Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Autoimmun Rev. 2008;7:598-605.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18603022?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫/炎症因素
免疫系统的异常可能是很多口腔溃疡的潜在病因。常有复发,严重程度不一,可表现为局限性自限性损害,也可严重到威胁生命。迄今为止这类疾病中最常见的类型是复发性阿弗他溃疡(RAS),在人群中的发病率约为25%。[3]McCullough MJ, Abdel-Hafeth S, Scully C. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis revisited: clinical features, associations, and new association with infant feeding practices? J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:615-620.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17944755?tool=bestpractice.com其他还包括坏死性涎腺化生、白塞病、周期性发热综合征、红斑狼疮、反应性关节炎、巨细胞动脉炎、韦格纳肉芽肿和移植物抗宿主病(GVHD)。
RAS:常在儿童时期发病,病损为圆形或者卵圆形的表浅溃疡,上覆黄白色假膜。[41]Zunt SL. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Dermatol Clin. 2003;21:33-39.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12622266?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Ship JA, Chavez EM, Doerr PA, et al. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Quintessence Int. 2000;31:95-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11203919?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 阿弗他溃疡由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends].推测RAS与多种因素有关,包括:遗传易感性、应激、外伤、感染、过敏及营养缺乏。[3]McCullough MJ, Abdel-Hafeth S, Scully C. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis revisited: clinical features, associations, and new association with infant feeding practices? J Oral Pathol Med. 2007;36:615-620.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17944755?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Scully C. Clinical practice: aphthous ulceration. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:165-172.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16837680?tool=bestpractice.com对于没有其他疾病的健康人来说,病损通常只发生于可自由活动的黏膜,较少发生于牙龈和硬腭。RAS主要分为三种类型:[42]Ship JA, Chavez EM, Doerr PA, et al. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Quintessence Int. 2000;31:95-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11203919?tool=bestpractice.com
轻型RAS:约占80%。溃疡个数通常为1~10个,直径小于1 cm,典型病损周围充血发红,上覆假膜。在14天内愈合,无后遗症。
重型RAS:约占10% 到 15%。溃疡更深,形状可能不规则,直径大于1 cm。愈合时间可能延长,愈后可形成瘢痕。
疱疹型RAS:约占5%到10%。其特征为连续出现的直径1~3mm的圆形表浅溃疡。在30天内愈合,无后遗症。与单纯疱疹病毒无关。
坏死性涎腺化生:罕见,一种以边缘较硬的深大溃疡主要位于硬腭和/或软腭。[43]Munoz-Corcuera M, Esparza-Gomez G, Gonzalez-Moles MA, et al. Oral ulcers: clinical aspects: a tool for dermatologists: part I: acute ulcers. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34:289-294.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19309371?tool=bestpractice.com为唾液腺的良性、自限性、炎性疾病,不是肿瘤,但与恶性肿瘤类似。目前认为该病是外伤或化学、生物制剂损伤引起的缺血所致。
白塞病:一种系统性血管炎症性疾病,一般被描述为“口-眼-生殖器三联征”(口腔溃疡、葡萄膜炎、生殖器溃疡)。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 白塞病的口腔溃疡病损经Dr Y. Yazici许可 [Citation ends].[44]Keogan MT. Clinical immunology review series: an approach to the patient with recurrent orogenital ulceration, including Behcet's syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol. 2009;156:1-11.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2008.03857.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19210521?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Tugal-Tutkun I. Behçet disease in the developing world. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2010;50:87-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20375864?tool=bestpractice.com关节症状和皮肤病损也很常见,针刺反应(一种对变应原的异常反应)为其特征性表现。目前尚不清楚是自身免疫性疾病还是自身炎症性疾病,但该病与人白细胞抗原B51(HLA B51)密切相关。[45]Tugal-Tutkun I. Behçet disease in the developing world. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2010;50:87-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20375864?tool=bestpractice.com患者通常在20到39岁时发病,可有家族史。[43]Munoz-Corcuera M, Esparza-Gomez G, Gonzalez-Moles MA, et al. Oral ulcers: clinical aspects: a tool for dermatologists: part I: acute ulcers. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34:289-294.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19309371?tool=bestpractice.com晚期可累及大血管、中枢神经系统(CNS)和胃肠道(GI)。在“丝绸之路”沿线发病率最高(在土耳其发病率高达4,200/100万,在中东和亚洲约为135~200/100万)。[45]Tugal-Tutkun I. Behçet disease in the developing world. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2010;50:87-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20375864?tool=bestpractice.com口腔病损可表现为重型、轻型和疱疹型阿弗他溃疡,通常位于颊黏膜、牙龈、唇部、软腭和咽部。[43]Munoz-Corcuera M, Esparza-Gomez G, Gonzalez-Moles MA, et al. Oral ulcers: clinical aspects: a tool for dermatologists: part I: acute ulcers. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34:289-294.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19309371?tool=bestpractice.com
周期性发热综合征:一组罕见的自身免疫性炎性疾病,以阿弗他样溃疡伴发热、咽炎和淋巴结肿大为主要特征。[46]Scully C, Hodgson T. Recurrent oral ulceration: aphthous-like ulcers in periodic syndromes. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;106:845-852.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18805719?tool=bestpractice.com这组疾病包括口腔和生殖器溃疡、软骨炎(MAGIC)综合征、周期性发热伴阿弗他性口炎和咽炎及颈淋巴结肿大(PFAPA)综合征,以及肿瘤坏死因子受体相关性周期综合征(TRAPS)。
反应性关节炎(赖特尔综合征):一种罕见的自身免疫性疾病,是身体其他部位出现感染时发生的反应性炎症。[33]Munoz-Corcuera M, Esparza-Gomez G, Gonzalez-Moles MA, et al. Oral ulcers: clinical aspects: a tool for dermatologists: part II: chronic ulcers. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2009;34:456-461.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19522982?tool=bestpractice.com症状通常包括大关节炎(比如膝关节炎)、眼部炎症(结膜炎和葡萄膜炎)以及尿道炎。此外,一些患者会出现与RAS病损类似的溃疡。急性期反应物(例如血沉或C反应蛋白)往往在急性期升高,但如果疾病转为慢性,上述指标可恢复正常。尽管HLA-B27不是诊断反应性关节炎的特异性或必须检测的指标,在特定临床状况下该指标可提高诊断的准确性。
红斑狼疮:一种慢性炎性结缔组织病,与多种自身抗体,包括抗核抗体(ANAs)有关。口腔病损可与皮肤病损同时出现。病损表现为红斑,萎缩或溃烂,周围有细小的白色放射状条纹。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com红斑萎缩的中央区偶尔会出现细小的白色斑点。并发症可能有疼痛性的溃疡,也可能恶变为鳞状细胞癌。
巨细胞动脉炎:一种免疫介导疾病,病因不明,颈动脉颅外分支的大中型动脉壁内的肉芽肿性浸润是其特征性的表现。[47]Ciantar M, Adlam DM. Glossodynia and necrosis of the tongue caused by giant cell arteritis. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;46:231-233.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17482729?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Brodmann M, Dorr A, Hafner F, et al. Tongue necrosis as first symptom of giant cell arteritis (GCA). Clin Rheumatol. 2009;28(suppl 1):S47-S49.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19277817?tool=bestpractice.com是最常见的脉管炎,通常与风湿性多肌痛同时发生。[49]Dasgupta B; Giant Cell Arteritis Guideline Development Group. Concise guidance: diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis. Clin Med. 2010;10:381-386.http://www.clinmed.rcpjournal.org/content/10/4/381.full?sid=5848e3cf-7802-452b-a739-bcd15d7db05ctoken=0050100e6e586546243138423147742123662a446a5e4e26634a492f25303329766c24915b793239http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20849016?tool=bestpractice.com典型症状和体征是头痛、咀嚼暂停、头皮触痛或者急性视力丧失。相关实验室检查结果包括血沉增高、C反应蛋白升高,组织学见内弹性膜断裂和动脉壁炎性细胞浸润,可出现或者不出现巨细胞。[50]Marí B, Monteagudo M, Bustamante E, et al. Analysis of temporal artery biopsies in an 18-year period at a community hospital. Eur J Intern Med. 2009;20:533-536.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19712860?tool=bestpractice.com治疗方案包括皮质类固醇疗法。尽管舌动脉很少被累及,但其受累后可能会导致舌部缺血和溃疡。更为重要的是,舌部受累意味着血管受累的范围较广,病情较重。
韦格纳肉芽肿:一种少见的免疫介导的坏死性肉芽肿性疾病,以上下呼吸道的肉芽肿、小动脉和小静脉的弥漫性血管炎和肾小球肾炎为特征。[51]Weeda LW Jr, Coffey SA. Wegener's granulomatosis. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:643-649.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940630?tool=bestpractice.com实验室检查可检出抗中性粒细胞胞浆抗体、抗蛋白酶3抗体和抗髓过氧化物酶抗体。口腔病损的发生率可达13%,且可是该病的首发表现。典型的口腔病损是布满瘀点(草莓样)的增生性牙龈炎。可出现破坏性溃疡,病损常蔓延至腭部。需采用皮质类固醇加环磷酰胺联合治疗。
慢性移植物抗宿主病(GVHD):在移植患者中的发病率为40% 到 70%。该病是造血干细胞移植后致病和致死的首要原因。[52]Imanguli MM, Alevizos I, Brown R, et al. Oral graft-versus-host disease. Oral Dis. 2008;14:396-412.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2565862/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18593456?tool=bestpractice.com口腔病损特征与扁平苔藓(苔藓样改变)、舍格伦综合征(口干症)和硬皮病(口腔黏膜纤维化、活动度减小)相似。GVHD的治疗目的是减轻疼痛、改善进食、改善生活质量、减少组织破坏。最常用的药物是环孢素和皮质类固醇,可单独使用,也可联合使用。
传染性
许多感染(细菌性、病毒性或真菌性)会累及口腔黏膜,尤其是免疫力低下的患者。细菌性感染包括窦道感染、坏死性溃疡牙龈炎、梅毒、淋病和结核。常见的病毒感染包括单纯疱疹病毒1型(HHV-1)和2型(HHV-2)、水痘-带状疱疹病毒(VZV)以及肠道病毒(疱疹性咽峡炎和手足口病)感染。真菌感染通常是指接合菌病、曲霉菌病、组织胞浆菌病、芽生菌病和副球孢子菌病的全身性感染或者局部的侵袭性感染。[53]O'Neill BM, Alessi AS, George EB, et al. Disseminated rhinocerebral mucormycosis: a case report and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64:326-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16413907?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Mignogna MD, Fedele S, Lo Russo L, et al. A case of oral localized histoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20:753-755.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11757982?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Samaranayake LP, Keung Leung W, Jin L. Oral mucosal fungal infections. Periodontol 2000. 2009;49:39-59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19152525?tool=bestpractice.com 它们应该与较为常见的口腔念珠菌感染相区分。口腔念珠菌感染只有在极少数情况(例如:严重的免疫抑制)下,才会表现为溃疡性损害。
窦道:颌骨或牙槽突的慢性感染可能会扩散到表面黏膜,形成窦道(龈脓肿)。[56]Slutzky-Goldberg I, Tsesis I, Slutzky H, et al. Odontogenic sinus tracts: a cohort study. Quintessence Int. 2009;40:13-18.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19159019?tool=bestpractice.com患者通常无 症状,但有牙齿外伤、感染或者未经治疗的牙病史。在检查中,可见窦道(龈脓肿),表现为单个的溃疡形或丘疹样引流口(通常可见明显的引流物),以及牙齿的明显缺损或充填物。上颌牙龈是最常受累的部位。
坏死性溃疡牙龈炎:一种少见的、疼痛的细菌感染,通常发生于吸烟者的龈乳头和龈缘组织。[57]Corbet EF. Diagnosis of acute periodontal lesions. Periodontol 2000. 2004;34:204-216.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14717863?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Melnick SL, Roseman JM, Engel D, et al. Epidemiology of acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis. Epidemiol Rev. 1988;10:191-211.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3066627?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 坏死性溃疡性牙龈炎由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends].坏死性溃疡牙龈炎常提示免疫功能低下,应立刻进行相关检查(比如HIV感染)。在易感人群(如营养不良、免疫力低下者)中,该病还可能发展为更为严重的坏疽性口炎(走马疳),累及口面部的其他结构。[59]Enwonwu CO, Falkler WA Jr, Phillips RS. Noma (cancrum oris). Lancet. 2006;368:147-156.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16829299?tool=bestpractice.com
梅毒:除生殖器外,口腔是梅毒最常累及部位。[60]Schneede P, Tenke P, Hofstetter AG. Urinary Tract Infection Working Group of the Health Care Office of the European Association of Urology. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): a synoptic overview for urologists. Eur Urol. 2003;44:1-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12814668?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com梅毒螺旋体在口腔黏膜的直接定植可引起梅毒,这通常是因为口腔黏膜直接接触了感染者的生殖器或肛门而引起。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Eccleston K, Collins L, Higgins SP. Primary syphilis. Int J STD AIDS. 2008;19:145-151.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18397550?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com 大部分病例使用青霉素即可治愈。[62]Eccleston K, Collins L, Higgins SP. Primary syphilis. Int J STD AIDS. 2008;19:145-151.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18397550?tool=bestpractice.com如果不治疗,梅毒可能会更严重。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com梅毒的三个阶段均可能有黏膜溃疡表现。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com一期梅毒的病损被称为硬下疳,发生在微生物侵入黏膜的部位。硬下疳表现为单发的无痛性溃疡,质地较硬,持续3~7周,愈合后不留瘢痕。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com最常累及的部位是嘴唇、舌、口角、牙龈、腭部和扁桃体。[63]Veraldi S, Lunardon L, Persico MC, et al. Multiple aphthoid syphilitic chancres of the oral cavity. Int J STD AIDS. 2008;19:486-487.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574125?tool=bestpractice.com淋巴结肿大常见。[42]Ship JA, Chavez EM, Doerr PA, et al. Recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Quintessence Int. 2000;31:95-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11203919?tool=bestpractice.com二期梅毒的口腔损害种类繁多,包括非特异性咽炎、光亮的黏膜斑和口腔溃疡。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com最具特征性的口腔损害是黏膜斑。表现为形状不规则的表浅斑块或溃疡,边缘充血发红。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com病损表面可见灰白色的坏死性假膜,多个病损融合时可形成蜗牛迹样外观。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Herrero-Gonzalez JE, Amer ME, Farres MF, et al. Syphilitic mucous patches: the resurgence of an old classic. Int J Dermatol. 2008;47:1281-1283.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19126017?tool=bestpractice.com三期梅毒的损害表现为局部的破坏性肉芽肿(树胶肿)、梅毒性舌炎。后者易发生恶性转化。
淋病:口腔直接接触感染者在罕见情况下可导致淋病奈瑟菌在口腔定植。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Schneede P, Tenke P, Hofstetter AG. Urinary Tract Infection Working Group of the Health Care Office of the European Association of Urology. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): a synoptic overview for urologists. Eur Urol. 2003;44:1-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12814668?tool=bestpractice.com 患者可能会出现多处非特异性的鲜红色溃疡,表面可覆盖白色假膜。[61]Bruce AJ, Rogers RS 3rd. Oral manifestations of sexually transmitted diseases. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:520-527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15596324?tool=bestpractice.com可伴有淋巴结肿大。
结核:原发性口腔结核比较罕见。[65]Hale RG, Tucker DI. Head and neck manifestations of tuberculosis. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:635-642.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940629?tool=bestpractice.com大部分口腔结核病损是由于结核杆菌通过痰液接种于口腔黏膜后发生的继发感染。约0.05%~5%的活动性结核病患者出现口腔病损。[65]Hale RG, Tucker DI. Head and neck manifestations of tuberculosis. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:635-642.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940629?tool=bestpractice.com常见病损为疼痛性肉芽肿性溃疡,可伴淋巴结肿大。病损可表现为局部破坏性损害,与鳞状细胞癌相似。[65]Hale RG, Tucker DI. Head and neck manifestations of tuberculosis. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:635-642.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18940629?tool=bestpractice.com常见的发病部位是舌、腭、颊和嘴唇。[66]Sezer B, Zeytinoglu M, Tuncay U, et al. Oral mucosal ulceration: a manifestation of previously undiagnosed pulmonary tuberculosis. J Am Dent Assoc. 2004;135:336-340.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15058623?tool=bestpractice.com
HHV-1和HHV-2:这两种病毒感染可引起口腔溃疡。[67]Huber MA. Herpes simplex type-1 virus infection. Quintessence Int. 2003;34:453-467.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12859090?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Arduino PG, Porter SR. Herpes simplex virus type 1 infection: overview on relevant clinico-pathological features. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37:107-121.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18197856?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Fatahzadeh M, Schwartz RA. Human herpes simplex virus infections: epidemiology, pathogenesis, symptomatology, diagnosis, and management. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;57:737-763.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17939933?tool=bestpractice.com 大约10%的原发性感染者表现为原发性疱疹性龈口炎,[68]Arduino PG, Porter SR. Herpes simplex virus type 1 infection: overview on relevant clinico-pathological features. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37:107-121.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18197856?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 原发性疱疹性龈口炎,女性,15岁由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends].一般在2周内完全缓解。该病也可由口腔黏膜直接暴露于 HSV-2 引起。[68]Arduino PG, Porter SR. Herpes simplex virus type 1 infection: overview on relevant clinico-pathological features. J Oral Pathol Med. 2008;37:107-121.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18197856?tool=bestpractice.com原发性疱疹病毒感染愈合后,约20%~40%的病例会发生复发性损害,这是潜伏的病毒被重新激活所致。
水痘带状疱疹病毒(VZV):是一种常见的人疱疹病毒。[69]Fatahzadeh M, Schwartz RA. Human herpes simplex virus infections: epidemiology, pathogenesis, symptomatology, diagnosis, and management. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;57:737-763.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17939933?tool=bestpractice.com原发性感染时,口腔病损比较少见,但可发生于严重病例。[70]Kolokotronis A, Louloudiadis K, Fotiou G, et al. Oral manifestations of infections due to varicella zoster virus in otherwise healthy children. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2001;25:107-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11314207?tool=bestpractice.com播散性皮肤损害提示VZV原发性感染。[70]Kolokotronis A, Louloudiadis K, Fotiou G, et al. Oral manifestations of infections due to varicella zoster virus in otherwise healthy children. J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2001;25:107-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11314207?tool=bestpractice.com复发性或者继发性水痘-带状疱疹病毒感染被称为带状疱疹,可发生于口腔,尤其是免疫力低下的人群或老年人。[71]Baccaglini L, Atkinson JC, Patton LL, et al. Management of oral lesions in HIV-positive patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103(suppl 50):e1-e23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17379155?tool=bestpractice.com
巨细胞病毒:一种常见的人疱疹病毒。由巨细胞病毒引起的口腔溃疡比较罕见,但在免疫力严重下降的患者,应考虑该病毒。[72]Syrjanen S, Leimola-Virtanen R, Schmidt-Westhausen A, et al. Oral ulcers in AIDS patients frequently associated with cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infections. J Oral Pathol Med. 1999;28:204-209.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10226942?tool=bestpractice.com巨细胞病毒常常与其他病毒(如 EB 病毒或 HSV)发生协同感染。[72]Syrjanen S, Leimola-Virtanen R, Schmidt-Westhausen A, et al. Oral ulcers in AIDS patients frequently associated with cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infections. J Oral Pathol Med. 1999;28:204-209.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10226942?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Lima RB, Santos PS, Malafronte P, et al. Oral manifestation of cytomegalovirus associated with herpes simplex virus in renal transplant recipient. Transplant Proc. 2008;40:1378-1381.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18589111?tool=bestpractice.com
肠道病毒(疱疹性咽峡炎和手足口病):这类病毒感染可引起非特异性口腔溃疡。[74]Scott LA, Stone MS. Viral exanthems. Dermatol Online J. 2003;9:4.http://dermatology.cdlib.org/93/reviews/viral/scott.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952751?tool=bestpractice.com肠道病毒感染愈合后通常不留后遗症,但也有因为脑炎或肺水肿导致死亡的罕见病例报道。[75]Lee TC, Guo HR, Su HJ, et al. Diseases caused by enterovirus 71 infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28:904-910.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20118685?tool=bestpractice.com疱疹性咽峡炎一般由柯萨奇病毒A类引起,多见于年幼儿童,一般年龄小于5岁。前驱症状包括发热、不适和头痛,可能会出现颈部和后背疼痛。[74]Scott LA, Stone MS. Viral exanthems. Dermatol Online J. 2003;9:4.http://dermatology.cdlib.org/93/reviews/viral/scott.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952751?tool=bestpractice.com通常在7天内消退。 手足口病是一种高度传染性的儿童疾病,一般由柯萨奇病毒A16和肠道病毒71引起,表现为口腔黏膜的非特异性溃疡和特征性皮损。多见于10 岁以下儿童,常在10天内恢复。[74]Scott LA, Stone MS. Viral exanthems. Dermatol Online J. 2003;9:4.http://dermatology.cdlib.org/93/reviews/viral/scott.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952751?tool=bestpractice.com可能会有短暂的前驱症状,包括低热、不适、咳嗽、厌食、腹痛及口腔烧灼痛。
真菌感染:与口腔溃疡有关的真菌感染包括接合菌病、曲霉菌病、组织胞浆菌病、芽生菌病和副球孢子菌病。溃疡性口腔真菌感染在健康人群中极为少见,但某些疾病,比如未控制的糖尿病、晚期恶性肿瘤(特别是血液来源的肿瘤)和免疫抑制(比如HIV感染)的患者,感染的风险升高。[1]Hodgson TA, Rachanis CC. Oral fungal and bacterial infections in HIV-infected individuals: an overview in Africa. Oral Dis. 2002;8(suppl 2):80-87.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12164666?tool=bestpractice.com[53]O'Neill BM, Alessi AS, George EB, et al. Disseminated rhinocerebral mucormycosis: a case report and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64:326-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16413907?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Mignogna MD, Fedele S, Lo Russo L, et al. A case of oral localized histoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20:753-755.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11757982?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Samaranayake LP, Keung Leung W, Jin L. Oral mucosal fungal infections. Periodontol 2000. 2009;49:39-59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19152525?tool=bestpractice.com溃疡通常由鼻窦原发性损害扩散而来,或者是全身霉菌病的表现。溃疡一般比较深,最常累及的部位是舌部、腭部和上颌牙槽突。[1]Hodgson TA, Rachanis CC. Oral fungal and bacterial infections in HIV-infected individuals: an overview in Africa. Oral Dis. 2002;8(suppl 2):80-87.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12164666?tool=bestpractice.com[53]O'Neill BM, Alessi AS, George EB, et al. Disseminated rhinocerebral mucormycosis: a case report and review of the literature. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64:326-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16413907?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Mignogna MD, Fedele S, Lo Russo L, et al. A case of oral localized histoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2001;20:753-755.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11757982?tool=bestpractice.com接合菌病可表现为口腔溃疡、鼻窦炎或面部蜂窝织炎。曲霉菌病可表现为带有坏死性溃疡性基底的黄色或黑色病损,一般位于腭部或者舌后份。组织胞浆菌病可表现为慢性结节状、硬结状或颗粒状的肿块和溃疡,可伴有组织破坏和骨质侵蚀。高达40~50%的全身性组织胞浆菌病患者出现口腔病损,主要累及的部位包括黏膜、舌部、腭部和牙龈。芽生菌病可表现为单处或多处黏膜溃疡、无蒂的突起,也可见肉芽肿性病损或者疣状病损。副球孢子菌病是一种主要发生在中南美洲的真菌感染性疾病。口腔损害常见,一般表现为口腔溃疡性肉芽肿,可累及口腔的任何部位。大部分口腔损害是继发性的,来自于感染痰液的接种。[55]Samaranayake LP, Keung Leung W, Jin L. Oral mucosal fungal infections. Periodontol 2000. 2009;49:39-59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19152525?tool=bestpractice.com
肿瘤因素
口腔癌在全球恶性肿瘤中排名第六,在发展中国家排名第三。[76]Ahmed SM, Mubeen, Jigna VR. Molecular biology: an early detector of oral cancers. Ann Diagn Pathol. 2009;13:140-145.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19302965?tool=bestpractice.com
鳞状细胞癌:最常见的口腔癌。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 口腔鳞状细胞癌由 Dr Huber提供 [Citation ends]. 风险因素包括吸烟、饮酒、人乳头瘤病毒(HPV)感染、免疫抑制、基因突变以及饮食中缺乏水果和蔬菜。[77]Silverman S Jr. Mucosal lesions in older adults. J Am Dent Assoc. 2007;138(suppl):41S-46S.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17761845?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Khalili J. Oral cancer: risk factors, prevention and diagnostic. Exp Oncol. 2008;30:259-264.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19112421?tool=bestpractice.com 男性比女性多见,平均发病年龄大于40岁。口腔癌一般在晚期才被确诊,总体5年生存率不超过60%。[77]Silverman S Jr. Mucosal lesions in older adults. J Am Dent Assoc. 2007;138(suppl):41S-46S.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17761845?tool=bestpractice.com疾病晚期的症状包括出血、牙齿松动、难以佩戴假牙、吞咽困难、构音障碍、吞咽痛以及颈部肿块。[79]Neville BW, Day TA. Oral cancer and precancerous lesions. CA Cancer J Clin. 2002;52:195-215.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12139232?tool=bestpractice.com口腔中的任何部位都可能被累及,最常累及的部位包括舌腹外侧缘、口底和软腭复合体。[79]Neville BW, Day TA. Oral cancer and precancerous lesions. CA Cancer J Clin. 2002;52:195-215.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12139232?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Mashberg A, Samit A. Early diagnosis of asymptomatic oral and oropharyngeal squamous cancers. CA Cancer J Clin. 1995;45:328-351.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7583906?tool=bestpractice.com
唾液腺恶性肿瘤(黏液表皮样癌和腺样囊性癌):较罕见,以快速生长或突然急剧生长为特征。病损较坚硬,呈结节性,可固定于周围组织,常常难以确定边界。疼痛症状和神经受累较为常见。最后,上覆皮肤或黏膜可能形成溃疡,邻近组织可能被波及。唾液腺恶性肿瘤中,最常表现为口腔溃疡的是黏液表皮样癌和腺样囊性癌。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com手术后配合放疗是可切除病损的首选治疗方法。目前还没有对唾液腺恶性肿瘤有效的化疗方案。
其他口腔恶性肿瘤:口腔黑色素瘤和卡波西肉瘤可能会表现为简单的溃疡。[2]Compilato D, Cirillo N, Termine N, et al. Long-standing oral ulcers: proposal for a new 'S-C-D classification system'. J Oral Pathol Med. 2009;38:241-253.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141062?tool=bestpractice.com非霍奇金淋巴瘤也可能表现为口腔溃疡。口腔黑色素瘤极为罕见,仅占原发性黑素瘤的不到1%。其特征是有色或者无黑色素的(白色、红色或者肉色)斑片样损害,尺寸不定(1 mm到≥1 cm),主要累及腭部和上颌牙龈。在疾病早期无症状,但是在晚期可能会导致牙松动、出血、溃疡和疼痛。卡波西肉瘤的口腔损害可能是15% 的艾滋病患者最早被发现的病损。卡波西肉瘤主要累及硬腭、牙龈和舌背,表现为大小和颜色不一的斑片、丘疹、结节和外生性肿块。晚期病损可因咀嚼创伤和继发感染而形成溃疡。