尽管背痛的原因多种多样,但对于大多数患者来说详细地询问病史和体格检查都有助于明确诊断。
病史
患者初次就诊时的主要目的是评估患者的症状是否提示更加严重的潜在疾病。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Low back pain and sciatica in over 16s: assessment and management. November 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng59
如果既往病史中提示有下述情况者,则需要行进一步影像学检查以明确诊断:[35]Henschke N, Maher CG, Refshauge KM. A systematic review identifies five "red flags" to screen for vertebral fracture in patients with low back pain. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61:110-118.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18177783?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Downie A, Williams CM, Henschke N, et al. Red flags to screen for malignancy and fracture in patients with low back pain: systematic review. BMJ. 2013;347:f7095.http://www.bmj.com/content/347/bmj.f7095.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24335669?tool=bestpractice.com
要询问患者有无静脉注射毒品、免疫抑制或者癌症病史。静脉注射毒品或者免疫抑制会增加脊柱骨髓炎和硬脊膜外脓肿的风险。如果腰背痛患者有癌症病史,则要排除肿瘤脊柱转移的可能。患者的年龄可有助于鉴别诊断,高龄患者发生脊柱转移和椎管狭窄的风险高。一定要注意,脊柱关节炎的诊断有时候会被漏诊过或延迟。[37]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Spondyloarthritis in over 16s: diagnosis and management. February 2017. https://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG65 由炎症性脊柱关节炎引起的腰背痛(较常始于 35 岁以前)可能单独存在或与其他特征一起存在,例如附着点炎、指(趾)炎、葡萄膜炎或银屑病的症状和体征。可能有银屑病或脊柱关节炎的家族史,或是近期泌尿生殖感染的病史。
体格检查
体检过程中,应观察患者的行走能力及步态。同时还要检查患者的脊柱活动度。[38]Alqarni AM, Schneiders AG, Hendrick PA. Clinical tests to diagnose lumbar segmental instability: a systematic review. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2011;41:130-140.http://www.jospt.org/doi/full/10.2519/jospt.2011.3457#.VAB3QfldXY8http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21289452?tool=bestpractice.com 进行脊柱触诊以明确疼痛部位。随后还要进行详细的神经系统检查,特异性检查方法包括:
直腿抬高或者对侧直腿抬高试验阳性可能是椎间盘髓核突出的表现。直腿抬高试验时,患者仰卧,髋关节逐渐屈曲同时膝关节逐渐伸展。当同侧髋关节屈曲小于 60 度可引出疼痛时考虑为直腿抬高试验阳性,且敏感性更高。当对侧髋关节屈曲小于 60 度时引出疼痛时亦为阳性结果,其对诊断的特异性较高。当髋关节屈曲大于 60 度引出疼痛时,通常为肌肉筋膜紧张导致的。[39]Deville WL, van der Windt DA, Dzaferagic A, et al. The test of Lasegue: systematic review of the accuracy in diagnosing herniated discs. Spine. 2000;25:1140-1147.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10788860?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Rubinstein SM, van Tulder M. A best-evidence review of diagnostic procedures for neck and low-back pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2008;22:471-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18519100?tool=bestpractice.com[41]van der Windt DA, Simons E, Riphagen II, et al. Physical examination for lumbar radiculopathy due to disc herniation in patients with low-back pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(2):CD007431.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007431.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20166095?tool=bestpractice.com 所有的椎间盘突出患者通常不表现为典型的直腿抬高试验阳性。即便是没有直腿抬高试验阳性或相应皮肤感觉区的疼痛,也不能除外患者有椎间盘突出症。[42]Al Nezari NH, Schneiders AG, Hendrick PA. Neurological examination of the peripheral nervous system to diagnose lumbar spinal disc herniation with suspected radiculopathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Spine J. 2013;13:657-674.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23499340?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,对于高位腰椎间盘突出,可以进行股骨拉伸或对侧股骨拉伸。患者通常以俯卧位进行这项试验。先弯曲膝盖,然后伸展腿部。如果腿部疼痛再现,即视为阳性。[25]Estridge MN, Rouhe SA, Johnson NG. The femoral stretching test. A valuable sign in diagnosing upper lumbar disc herniations. J Neurosurg. 1982;57:813-817.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7143064?tool=bestpractice.com
应注意特异性神经系统功能障碍,例如无力、肌肉痉挛、反射亢进或减弱。这些均提示更加严重的神经受压,提示患者需要脊柱外科医生的进一步评估和治疗。[35]Henschke N, Maher CG, Refshauge KM. A systematic review identifies five "red flags" to screen for vertebral fracture in patients with low back pain. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61:110-118.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18177783?tool=bestpractice.com
直肠张力降低是一个重要的体检发现,提示骶管内压迫导致骶神经根受压。[35]Henschke N, Maher CG, Refshauge KM. A systematic review identifies five "red flags" to screen for vertebral fracture in patients with low back pain. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61:110-118.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18177783?tool=bestpractice.com
为了鉴别血管性和神经性跛行,进行血管检查是很重要的。血管性跛行通常在患者以任何姿势活动下肢时加重,休息时迅速缓解。而神经性跛行是在过伸姿势时加重,而在腰椎前屈曲时能缓解。[35]Henschke N, Maher CG, Refshauge KM. A systematic review identifies five "red flags" to screen for vertebral fracture in patients with low back pain. J Clin Epidemiol. 2008;61:110-118.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18177783?tool=bestpractice.com 有跛行症状的患者可能同时伴有血管和脊柱病变。
实验室检测
对于腰背痛患者的评估通常不需要进行常规实验室检查,除非医生考虑患者有恶性病变或者感染的可能(例如:非机械性腰背痛、发热、寒战、盗汗和/或体重减轻)。对于这些病例,应进行全血细胞计数、红细胞沉降率、C反应蛋白 (CRP) 和血培养。尽管这些检查都是非特异性的,但是相关数值在机械性腰背痛患者中应该不会升高,因此结果异常往往提示全身性病变的可能,例如感染或炎症。当怀疑患者为肾盂肾炎或者肾绞痛时,要进行尿液分析或培养。
影像学检查
对于高危患者,例如接受免疫抑制治疗、口服皮质类固醇,以及有静脉注射毒品史的腰背痛患者都应立即到医生处就诊,进行相关的影像学检查。对于休息无法缓解的持续疼痛、全身性病变(例如:发热、寒战、全身不适、恶性肿瘤病史、原因不明的体重减轻)、严重的神经系统功能障碍都需要采取进一步的影像学检查,例如 MRI 或者 CT 。最后,对于创伤,特别是高龄患者的轻微外伤、骨质疏松以及者长期使用皮质类固醇治疗的患者,也推荐进行相关的影像学检查。[33]Australian Government National Health and Medical Research Council. Emergency care: acute pain management manual. 2011. http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/publications/attachments/cp135_emergency_acute_pain_management_manual.pdf
在非专科环境中,大多数腰痛患者(伴或不伴坐骨神经痛)不需要进行常规影像学检查。[34]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Low back pain and sciatica in over 16s: assessment and management. November 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng59 应安抚患者,保守治疗会对他们的症状有效。如果症状持续超过 6-8 周,则届时需要进行 X 线平片检查,因为大多数良性腰痛患者在此时症状应该已经缓解。[40]Rubinstein SM, van Tulder M. A best-evidence review of diagnostic procedures for neck and low-back pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2008;22:471-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18519100?tool=bestpractice.com[43]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: low back pain. 2015. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69483/Narrative/[44]Chou R, Fu R, Carrino JA, et al. Imaging strategies for low-back pain: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2009;373:463-472.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19200918?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Chou R, Qaseem A, Owens DK, et al. Diagnostic imaging for low back pain: advice for high-value health care from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2011;154:181-189.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21282698?tool=bestpractice.com[46]Chou R, Qaseem A, Snow V, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:478-491.http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=736814http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17909209?tool=bestpractice.com
更进一步的影像学检查,例如 MRI 或者 CT,只在考虑患者存在神经受压、感染或者肿瘤时应用。因为在许多无症状患者中可发现的退行性病变和椎间盘病变,从而导致过度诊断和引起不必要的焦虑。[40]Rubinstein SM, van Tulder M. A best-evidence review of diagnostic procedures for neck and low-back pain. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2008;22:471-482.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18519100?tool=bestpractice.com[43]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: low back pain. 2015. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69483/Narrative/[44]Chou R, Fu R, Carrino JA, et al. Imaging strategies for low-back pain: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2009;373:463-472.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19200918?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Chou R, Qaseem A, Owens DK, et al. Diagnostic imaging for low back pain: advice for high-value health care from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2011;154:181-189.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21282698?tool=bestpractice.com[46]Chou R, Qaseem A, Snow V, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of low back pain: a joint clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society. Ann Intern Med. 2007;147:478-491.http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=736814http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17909209?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Weishaupt D, Zanetti M, Hodler J, et al. MR imaging of the lumbar spine: prevalence of intervertebral disk extrusion and sequestration, nerve root compression, end plate abnormalities, and osteoarthritis of the facet joints in asymptomatic volunteers. Radiology. 1998;209:661-666.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9844656?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Stadnik TW, Lee RR, Coen HL, et al. Annular tears and disk herniation: prevalence and contrast enhancement on MR images in the absence of low back pain or sciatica. Radiology. 1998;206:49-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9423651?tool=bestpractice.com 这些检查需要和脊柱外科医师商讨后决定是否进行,或者由脊柱外科医师决定,从而避免进行不必要的检查。但是通常如果患者存在非机械性腰背痛或者存在神经受压,MRI 是首选的检查。如果患者脊柱有金属物或者无法进行 MRI 检查,可推荐患者进行脊柱 CT 检查。骶髂关节 MRI 扫描通常不是必需检查,但当怀疑炎症性脊柱炎是腰背痛的原因、而临床检查和 X 线平片一线检查尚未确定诊断时,则推荐进行该扫描。[49]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: chronic back pain - suspected sacroiliitis/spondyloarthropathy. 2016. https://acsearch.acr.org/ (last accessed 30 March 2017).https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/3094107/Narrative/
在外伤时,标准的骨盆和脊柱前后位 X 线检查是必须的。当患者有腰背痛时,脊椎的前后位和正侧位 X 线检查都是必须的。此外,神经受压、全脊髓异常、触诊时发现脊柱异常均提示应进行 CT 检查以明确骨质结构。要注意的是,在移动脊柱外伤患者的时候,要注意保护脊椎,直到脊柱外科或者外伤医师确认脊柱正常。一旦影像学检查发现异常,则要咨询脊柱外科医生进行进一步治疗。