病史
完整的病史可以协助诊断 NVH。应当分析患者出现血尿的情形。出现尿痛、尿急、尿频、发热可能提示有 UTI。注意近期的感染、月经史、性行为或锻炼情况可以避免过度检查。通常,由于剧烈运动造成的血尿在几小时内会好转。[26]Jones GR, Newhouse IJ, Jakobi JM, et al. The incidence of hematuria in middle distance track running. Can J Appl Physiol. 2001;26:336-349.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11487707?tool=bestpractice.com 应当在UTI治疗6周后复查尿常规。[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com 有关尿路肿瘤危险因素的其他相关病史可协助判断是否需要行进一步影像学和膀胱镜检查。[1]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part I: definition, detection, prevalence and etiology. Urology. 2001;57:599-603.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306356?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Edwards TJ, Dickinson AJ, Natale S, et al. A prospective analysis of the diagnostic yield resulting from 4020 patients at a protocol-driven haematuria clinic. BJU Int. 2006;97:301-305.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16430634?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com 其他重要的发现包括上尿路肾小球和非肾小球性疾病的家族史、个人或家族出血性疾病史、镰刀状细胞性贫血。最后,除了已知的与癌症相关的危险因素外,职业暴露(例如农药厂工人)也可能会导致 NVH。[28]Gun RT, Seymour AE, Mathew TH. A cluster of haematuria cases in a pesticide-manufacturing plant. Occup Med. 1998;48:59-62.http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/48/1/59
尿道肿瘤的风险因素包括:
年龄:在40岁以前少见;[10]Alishahi S, Byrne D, Goodman CM, et al. Haematuria investigation based on a standard protocol: emphasis on the diagnosis of urological malignancy. J R Coll Surg Edinb. 2002;47:422-427.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11874263?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Froom P, Ribak J, Benbassat J. Significance of microhaematuria in young adults. BMJ. 1984;288:20-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1444134/pdf/bmjcred00482-0026.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6418299?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Topham PS, Jethwa A, Watkins M, et al. The value of urine screening in a young adult population. Fam Pract. 2004;21:18-21.http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/21/1/18http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14760038?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Mishra VC, Rowe E, Rao AR, et al. Role of i.v. urography in patients with haematuria. Scand J Urol Nephrol. 2004;38:236-239.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15204378?tool=bestpractice.com 年龄超过40后风险会增加[1]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part I: definition, detection, prevalence and etiology. Urology. 2001;57:599-603.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306356?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Messing EM, Madeb R, Young T, et al. Long-term outcome of hematuria home screening for bladder cancer in men. Cancer. 2006;107:2173-2179.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.22224/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17029275?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Froom P, Ribak J, Benbassat J. Significance of microhaematuria in young adults. BMJ. 1984;288:20-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1444134/pdf/bmjcred00482-0026.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6418299?tool=bestpractice.com 40岁以下的发病率为1%~2.4%。[29]Paner GP, Zehnder P, Amin AM, et al. Urothelial neoplasms of the urinary bladder occurring in young adult and pediatric patients: a comprehensive review of literature with implications for patient management. Adv Anat Pathol. 2011;18:79-89.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21169741?tool=bestpractice.com
吸烟
药物:非那西丁(仅在日本);环磷酰胺;草药减肥制剂中的马兜铃酸[7]Cohen RA, Brown RS. Microscopic hematuria. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2330-2338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12788998?tool=bestpractice.com
既往史:放射暴露
职业暴露:染料、苯系物、芳香胺。
查体
体格检查需要注意寻找直接关系到尿路的疾病,也要兼顾其他系统性疾病。例如,上尿路肾小球疾病可以引起血压升高,而瘀斑、瘀伤,或淋巴结肿大可能提示出血性疾病或血细胞肿瘤。腹部和外生殖器检查也能为 NVH 提供线索。男性直肠指诊可以明确良性前列腺增生并可能发现前列腺癌。像详细的病史一样,体格检查如果可以发现明显的原因,就可以避免大量检查。
基本实验室检查
最初的实验室检查应当通过合适的临床设备评估全身性疾病,包括凝血、红细胞沉降率、肌酐和 C 反应蛋白。若怀疑 UTI,可通过尿液培养确诊。前列腺特异性抗原检测可以帮助明确 NVH 是否来源于前列腺。
尿液镜检
在进行任何检查前,均应对血尿进行显微镜检确认。[1]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part I: definition, detection, prevalence and etiology. Urology. 2001;57:599-603.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306356?tool=bestpractice.com[7]Cohen RA, Brown RS. Microscopic hematuria. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2330-2338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12788998?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Fracchia JA, Motta J, Miller L, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microhematuria. Urology. 1995;46:484-489.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7571215?tool=bestpractice.com 尿试纸测试对血尿具有高度敏感性,但缺乏特异性。[1]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part I: definition, detection, prevalence and etiology. Urology. 2001;57:599-603.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306356?tool=bestpractice.com[7]Cohen RA, Brown RS. Microscopic hematuria. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2330-2338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12788998?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Rodgers M, Nixon J, Hempel S, et al. Diagnostic tests and algorithms used in the investigation of haematuria: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10:1-259.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16729917?tool=bestpractice.com 假阳性的发生可见于聚维酮碘,肌红蛋白、游离血红蛋白、次氯酸盐溶液、氧化剂和高水平抗坏血酸。[3]Tomson C, Porter T. Asymptomatic microscopic or dipstick haematuria in adults: which investigations for which patients? A review of the evidence. BJU Int. 2002;90:185-198.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12133052?tool=bestpractice.com 目前共识主张,在 3 次离心尿样本中出现 2 次及以上≥3 RBC/HPF(每高倍视野含有≥3 个红细胞)即提示 NVH。[19]Nielsen M, Qaseem A; High Value Care Task Force of the American College of Physicians. Hematuria as a marker of occult urinary tract cancer: advice for high-value care from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2016;164:488-497.http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2484287http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26810935?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,如果患者只有1次标本中出现少量红细胞,也应对有恶性肿瘤风险的患者进行全面检查,因为肿瘤可能间歇性出血。[1]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part I: definition, detection, prevalence and etiology. Urology. 2001;57:599-603.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306356?tool=bestpractice.com 显微镜检应取新鲜中段尿标本,如果行试纸测试,镜检应在试纸测试后立即执行。[1]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part I: definition, detection, prevalence and etiology. Urology. 2001;57:599-603.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306356?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Rodgers M, Nixon J, Hempel S, et al. Diagnostic tests and algorithms used in the investigation of haematuria: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10:1-259.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16729917?tool=bestpractice.com 镜检在确诊 NVH 的同时也能够通过识别异形红细胞和红细胞管型指导进一步的检查,这二者提示出血源为上尿路肾小球性。[3]Tomson C, Porter T. Asymptomatic microscopic or dipstick haematuria in adults: which investigations for which patients? A review of the evidence. BJU Int. 2002;90:185-198.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12133052?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Fracchia JA, Motta J, Miller L, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microhematuria. Urology. 1995;46:484-489.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7571215?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Rodgers M, Nixon J, Hempel S, et al. Diagnostic tests and algorithms used in the investigation of haematuria: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10:1-259.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16729917?tool=bestpractice.com肾性血尿的鉴别:中等级别证据表明,尿中存在变形红细胞和红细胞管型提示肾实质疾病。[22]Fracchia JA, Motta J, Miller L, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microhematuria. Urology. 1995;46:484-489.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7571215?tool=bestpractice.com 以异形红细胞占80%作为临界值,能准确预测肾脏源性(血尿)。[30]Rodgers M, Nixon J, Hempel S, et al. Diagnostic tests and algorithms used in the investigation of haematuria: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10:1-259.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16729917?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
尿蛋白
同时存在蛋白尿和 NVH 高度提示上尿路肾小球源性出血。[3]Tomson C, Porter T. Asymptomatic microscopic or dipstick haematuria in adults: which investigations for which patients? A review of the evidence. BJU Int. 2002;90:185-198.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12133052?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Shen P, Ding X, Ten J, et al. Clinicopathological characteristics and outcome of adult patients with hematuria and/or proteinuria found during routine examination. Nephron Clin Pract. 2006;103:c149-c156.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16636583?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Yamagata K, Takahashi H, Tomida C, et al. Prognosis of asymptomatic hematuria and/or proteinuria in men. High prevalence of IgA nephropathy among proteinuria patients found in mass screening. Nephron. 2002;91:34-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12021517?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Hall CL, Bradley R, Kerr A, et al. Clinical value of renal biopsy in patients with asymptomatic microscopic hematuria with and without low-grade proteinuria. Clin Nephrol. 2004;62:267-272.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15524056?tool=bestpractice.com重大的潜在肾疾病的诊断:有中等级别证据表明,伴发蛋白尿的血尿提示严重的潜在肾脏疾病。[24]Shen P, Ding X, Ten J, et al. Clinicopathological characteristics and outcome of adult patients with hematuria and/or proteinuria found during routine examination. Nephron Clin Pract. 2006;103:c149-c156.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16636583?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Yamagata K, Takahashi H, Tomida C, et al. Prognosis of asymptomatic hematuria and/or proteinuria in men. High prevalence of IgA nephropathy among proteinuria patients found in mass screening. Nephron. 2002;91:34-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12021517?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Hall CL, Bradley R, Kerr A, et al. Clinical value of renal biopsy in patients with asymptomatic microscopic hematuria with and without low-grade proteinuria. Clin Nephrol. 2004;62:267-272.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15524056?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 尿蛋白与肌酐比值≥0.3或尿白蛋白与尿总蛋白的比例≥0.59表明肾实质疾病。[7]Cohen RA, Brown RS. Microscopic hematuria. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2330-2338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12788998?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Ohisa N, Kanemitsu K, Matsuki R, et al. Evaluation of hematuria using the urinary albumin-to-total-protein ratio to differentiate glomerular and nonglomerular bleeding. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2007;11:61-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17385000?tool=bestpractice.com 后者对鉴别肾小球与非肾小球源性出血的敏感性为 97%。有必要请肾内科会诊并由其决定是否行肾活检,因为通常 NVH 患者的肾活检并不会影响治疗策略。[3]Tomson C, Porter T. Asymptomatic microscopic or dipstick haematuria in adults: which investigations for which patients? A review of the evidence. BJU Int. 2002;90:185-198.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12133052?tool=bestpractice.com[32]McGregor DO, Lynn KL, Bailey RR, et al. Clinical audit of the use of renal biopsy in the management of isolated microscopic hematuria. Clin Nephrol. 1998;49:345-348.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9696429?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,如果蛋白尿不与血尿共存,肾活检就不是必要的。[7]Cohen RA, Brown RS. Microscopic hematuria. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2330-2338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12788998?tool=bestpractice.com
影像学检查
如果病史和体格检查无法确定出血的来源并且镜检证实了 NVH 的存在,那么除非怀疑上尿路肾小球来源,否则应行尿路影像学检查。[3]Tomson C, Porter T. Asymptomatic microscopic or dipstick haematuria in adults: which investigations for which patients? A review of the evidence. BJU Int. 2002;90:185-198.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12133052?tool=bestpractice.com 任何有尿路肿瘤危险因素的患者均应行影像学检查。[1]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part I: definition, detection, prevalence and etiology. Urology. 2001;57:599-603.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306356?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Edwards TJ, Dickinson AJ, Natale S, et al. A prospective analysis of the diagnostic yield resulting from 4020 patients at a protocol-driven haematuria clinic. BJU Int. 2006;97:301-305.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16430634?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com 主要有三种方式可用于评估:静脉尿路造影 (IVU)、超声、或 CT。尽管上尿路主要是依靠这 3 种影像学检查评价,但影像技术的进步意味着膀胱病变可以通过螺旋 CT 尿路造影[33]Lang EK, Thomas R, Davis R, et al. Multiphasic helical computerized tomography for the assessment of microscopic hematuria: a prospective study. J Urol. 2004;171:237-243.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14665884?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Lang EK, Macchia RJ, Thomas R, et al. Computerized tomography tailored for the assessment of microscopic hematuria. J Urol. 2002;167(2 Pt 1):547-554.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11792916?tool=bestpractice.com 和/或CT虚拟膀胱镜检查、[35]Qu X, Huang X, Wu L, et al. Comparison of virtual cystoscopy and ultrasonography for bladder cancer detection: a meta-analysis. Eur J Radiol. 2011;80:188-197.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20452159?tool=bestpractice.com 以及三维超声予以发现。[36]Mitterberger M, Pinggera GM, Neuwiert H, et al. Three-dimensional ultrasonography of the urinary bladder: preliminary experience of assessment in patients with haematuria. BJU Int. 2007;99:111-116.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2006.06536.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17034493?tool=bestpractice.com
如果条件允许,静脉增强螺旋CT是最优检查。[37]Van Der Molen AJ, Cowan NC, Mueller-Lisse UG, et al. CT urography: definition, indications and techniques: a guideline for clinical practice. Eur Radiol. 2008;18:4-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17973110?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Lang EK, Thomas R, Davis R, et al. Multiphasic helical computerized tomography for the assessment of microscopic hematuria: a prospective study. J Urol. 2004;171:237-243.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14665884?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Lang EK, Macchia RJ, Thomas R, et al. Computerized tomography tailored for the assessment of microscopic hematuria. J Urol. 2002;167(2 Pt 1):547-554.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11792916?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Albani JM, Ciaschini MW, Streem SB, et al. The role of computerized tomographic urography in the initial evaluation of hematuria. J Urol. 2007;177:644-648.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17222650?tool=bestpractice.com血尿来源的鉴别:中等级别证据表明,在以前泌尿外科检查,包括静脉尿路造影(IVU)或超声检查阴性的患者中,CT尿路造影发现复发性血尿的敏感性为91%,特异性为94%。[33]Lang EK, Thomas R, Davis R, et al. Multiphasic helical computerized tomography for the assessment of microscopic hematuria: a prospective study. J Urol. 2004;171:237-243.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14665884?tool=bestpractice.com CT泌尿系造影和IVU诊断上尿路的敏感性分别为94%和50%。[38]Albani JM, Ciaschini MW, Streem SB, et al. The role of computerized tomographic urography in the initial evaluation of hematuria. J Urol. 2007;177:644-648.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17222650?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 一项试验结果显示螺旋CT尿路造影具有91%的敏感性;其中,膀胱肿瘤敏感性达94%,其他膀胱病变敏感性<90%。[33]Lang EK, Thomas R, Davis R, et al. Multiphasic helical computerized tomography for the assessment of microscopic hematuria: a prospective study. J Urol. 2004;171:237-243.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14665884?tool=bestpractice.com 最近的一项meta分析结果显示虚拟CT膀胱镜敏感性达93%。[35]Qu X, Huang X, Wu L, et al. Comparison of virtual cystoscopy and ultrasonography for bladder cancer detection: a meta-analysis. Eur J Radiol. 2011;80:188-197.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20452159?tool=bestpractice.com 如果怀疑结石,那么螺旋CT检查就不应增强。IVU或超声可以考虑代替CT,其中IVU是首选。[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com IVU和超声的诊断效力不相上下,但都有各自的局限性,[39]Dikranian AH, Petitti DB, Shapiro CE, et al. Intravenous urography in evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria. J Endourol. 2005;19:595-597.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989453?tool=bestpractice.com 都可能会漏诊小的肾占位。[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,IVU能更好地识别上尿路移行细胞癌,[40]Jaffe JS, Ginsberg PC, Gill R, et al. A new diagnostic algorithm for the evaluation of microscopic hematuria. Urology. 2001;57:889-894.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11337288?tool=bestpractice.com 而超声能够更好地识别囊性病变。[39]Dikranian AH, Petitti DB, Shapiro CE, et al. Intravenous urography in evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria. J Endourol. 2005;19:595-597.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15989453?tool=bestpractice.com
膀胱镜检查
对于病史和体格检查没有发现明确原因、没有怀疑上尿路肾小球来源和具有恶性肿瘤风险的血尿患者,推荐首选膀胱镜检查。[27]Grossfeld GD, Litwin MS, Wolf JS, et al. Evaluation of asymptomatic microscopic hematuria in adults: the American Urological Association best practice policy - part II: patient evaluation, cytology, voided markers, imaging, cystoscopy, nephrology evaluation, and follow-up. Urology. 2001;57:604-610.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11306357?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,单纯影像学检查仅能明确30%的血尿来源,膀胱镜检查比尿脱落细胞学检查意义更大。[7]Cohen RA, Brown RS. Microscopic hematuria. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:2330-2338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12788998?tool=bestpractice.com恶性肿瘤的排除:有高级别证据表明,在除外恶性肿瘤或避免患者进行其他诊断性检查方面,尿脱落细胞学检查并无价值。[30]Rodgers M, Nixon J, Hempel S, et al. Diagnostic tests and algorithms used in the investigation of haematuria: systematic reviews and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2006;10:1-259.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16729917?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 有证据表明,即使初始检查(包括IVU和尿脱落细胞学检查)阴性,膀胱镜检查还可以发现25%的病变,其中高达56%的病变可以称为“典型病变”[41]Hong SK, Ahn C, Kim HH. The value of cystoscopy as an initial diagnostic modality for asymptomatic microscopic hematuria. J Korean Med Sci. 2001;16:309-312.http://jkms.org/Synapse/Data/PDFData/0063JKMS/jkms-16-309.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11410691?tool=bestpractice.com
尿肿瘤标记物
在研究性试验中,尿肿瘤标志物对诊断泌尿系统肿瘤没有表现出足够的特异性。然而,这些标志物也许可以在评估治疗效果和识别治疗后复发中发挥作用。[15]van Rhijn BW, van der Poel HG, van der Kwast TH. Cytology and urinary markers for the diagnosis of bladder cancer. Eur Urol Suppl. 2009;8:535-566.[14]Ecke TH. Focus on urinary bladder cancer markers: a review. Minerva Urol Nefrol. 2008;60:237-246.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18923360?tool=bestpractice.com