参见 鉴别诊断 以获取更多具体信息
初诊的精神状态改变患者排除常见和不常见疾病尤为重要,以避免忽略重要疾病导致致命后果。必须对AMS患者进行快速准确的评估和稳定,包括对气道情况及呼吸、循环等生命体征进行及时评估。其中包括精神状态改变疾病的可逆原因的检查与治疗(例如,给氧、硫胺素、葡萄糖、纳洛酮)、气道管理评估、检测肠温以获得精确测量、存在外伤迹象时急诊行头颅CT 检查、发热时给予经验性抗生素(和/或抗病毒药物)并并针对所处环境进行合适的基本处理。
神经系统急症
新发作卒中或短暂性脑缺血发作、颅脑损伤、硬膜外或硬膜下血肿、蛛网膜下腔出血、癫痫发作、脑膜炎、脑炎、脑脓肿和神经梅毒均可导致 AMS(精神状态改变)。[13]Huff JS, Melnick ER, Tomaszewski CA, et al; American College of Emergency Physicians. Clinical policy: critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult patients presenting to the emergency department with seizures. Ann Emerg Med. 2014;63:437-447.http://www.acep.org/Clinical---Practice-Management/Clinical-Policy--Critical-Issues-in-the-Evaluation-and-Management-of-Adult-Patients-Presenting-to-the-Emergency-Department-With-Seizures/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24655445?tool=bestpractice.com额外的 CT 和/或 MRI 神经系统评估应谨慎小心。
对有高血压脑病体征的患者进行检查时,应重点注意任何终末器官损伤的迹象。对于急性高血压危象,国家联合委员会预防、检测、评估和治疗高血压的第七次报告指出,最初应将平均动脉压较治疗前降低25%以内,如果患者病情稳定,则在后续的2-6小时内降至160/100-110mmHg。[14]Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension. 2003;42:1206-1252.http://hyper.ahajournals.org/content/42/6/1206.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14656957?tool=bestpractice.com
谵妄(急性、意识和认知水平的波动,特点为注意力不集中和思维紊乱)是一种需要立即进行病情检查的紧急情况。[6]Inouye SK. Delirium in hospitalized older patients. Clin Geriatr Med. 1998;14:745-764.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9799477?tool=bestpractice.com感染、代谢紊乱或者毒物中毒的病史或者体征有时可以说明患者的病情。最初应进行的检查包括 FBC、代谢、空腹血糖、尿常规和尿培养。进一步的检查和处理应根据患者的病史及检查结果制定。谵妄持续存在的老年患者常常需要入院治疗(出院后6个月的老年患者中高达 21%)。[15]Cole MG, Ciampi A, Belzile E, et al. Persistent delirium in older hospital patients: a systematic review of frequency and prognosis. Age Ageing. 2009;38:19-26.http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/content/38/1/19.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19017678?tool=bestpractice.com持续谵妄的患者均提示预后差,包括独立性丧失以及长期护理的风险增加。[15]Cole MG, Ciampi A, Belzile E, et al. Persistent delirium in older hospital patients: a systematic review of frequency and prognosis. Age Ageing. 2009;38:19-26.http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org/content/38/1/19.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19017678?tool=bestpractice.com
严重全身性感染
鉴于尽早识别和治疗脓毒症或脓毒症休克是改善结局的关键,因此必须要考虑到隐匿性感染(中枢神经系统、皮肤、心脏、肺部、腹部及泌尿生殖系统)的可能。[16]Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, et al. Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1589-1596.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16625125?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Ferrer R, Martin-Loeches I, Phillips G, et al. Empiric antibiotic treatment reduces mortality in severe sepsis and septic shock from the first hour: results from a guideline-based performance improvement program. Crit Care Med. 2014;42:1749-1755.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24717459?tool=bestpractice.com[18]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. July 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 11 September 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG51[19]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Crit Care Med. 2017;45:486-552.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28098591?tool=bestpractice.comAMS 可能是识别老年人群尿路感染和肺炎的唯一征象。尿液分析和胸片应作为常规检查的一部分。脑脓肿也可能出现AMS,可以通过头颅CT或MR扫描确诊。
脓毒症是一个疾病谱系,为宿主对感染的全身性应答失调。[20]Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315:801-810.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2492881http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26903338?tool=bestpractice.com关于诊断脓毒症的最合适标准一直存在争议,有几种不同的方法已被提出。[20]Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315:801-810.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2492881http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26903338?tool=bestpractice.com[18]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. July 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 11 September 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG51第三版国际共识专家组(脓毒症-3)建议使用序贯(或脓毒症相关性)器官衰竭评估 (Sequential Organ Failure Assessment, SOFA) 评分(主要是在重症监护患者中进行验证)。提示脓毒症的器官功能障碍被定义为 SOFA 评分中两分或两分以上的急性改变。[20]Singer M, Deutschman CS, Seymour CW, et al. The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA. 2016;315:801-810.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2492881http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26903338?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 序贯(或脓毒症相关性)器官衰竭评估 (SOFA) 标准由 BMJ 编制,改编自:Vincent JL, Moreno R, Takala J, et al. The SOFA (Sepsis-related Organ Failure Assessment) score to describe organ dysfunction/failure.On behalf of the Working Group on Sepsis-Related Problems of the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine.Intensive Care Med 1996;22:707-710. [Citation ends].
“快速 SOFA”(qSOFA) 是一项床旁评估工具,用于识别因脓毒症导致病情恶化的患者。有风险的患者必须满足 3 个标准(收缩压≤100 mmHg、精神状态改变、呼吸率≥22 次/分)中的 2 个。不过,有证据表明,它与其他床旁早期预警评分相比,敏感性可能较低。[21]Churpek MM, Snyder A, Han X, et al. Quick sepsis-related organ failure assessment, systemic inflammatory response syndrome, and early warning scores for detecting clinical deterioration in infected patients outside the intensive care unit. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195:906-911.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27649072?tool=bestpractice.com2016 年英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所 (National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, NICE) 脓毒症指南强调了在任何可能有感染的患者中“考虑脓毒症”的必要性。该指南建议根据患者年龄和背景对患者进行有条理的观察,并对脓毒症导致的严重疾病和死亡风险进行分层。[18]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. July 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 11 September 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG51早期识别诊断十分重要,因为早治疗可带来显著的短期和长期结局获益。[22]Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1368-1377.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa010307http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11794169?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Puskarich MA, Marchick MR, Kline JA, et al. One year mortality of patients treated with an emergency department based early goal directed therapy protocol for severe sepsis and septic shock: a before and after study. Crit Care. 2009;13:R167.https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/cc8138http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19845956?tool=bestpractice.com[18]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. July 2016. https://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 11 September 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/NG51[24]Jones AE, Focht A, Horton JM, et al. Prospective external validation of an emergency department-based early goal-directed therapy protocol for severe sepsis and septic shock. Chest. 2007;132:425-432.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2703721/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17573521?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Gao F, Melody T, Daniels R, et al. The impact of compliance with 6-hour and 24-hour sepsis bundles on hospital mortality in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective observational study. Crit Care. 2005;9:R764-R770.https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/cc3909http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16356225?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Daniels R, Nutbeam I, McNamara G, et al. The sepsis six and the severe sepsis resuscitation bundle: a prospective observational cohort study. Emerg Med J. 2011;28:507-512.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21036796?tool=bestpractice.com例如,一份纳入观察数据的 meta 分析证实,在一个小时内给予抗生素相较延迟给予而言,与较低的住院死亡风险有关。[27]Johnston AN, Park J, Doi SA, et al. Effect of immediate administration of antibiotics in patients with sepsis in tertiary care: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Ther. 2017;39:190-202.e6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28062114?tool=bestpractice.com拯救脓毒症运动 (Surviving Sepsis Campaign) 提出的指南目前仍是最被广为接受的治疗标准。[19]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Crit Care Med. 2017;45:486-552.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28098591?tool=bestpractice.com需要立即进行 ABC 评估及支持性治疗。已制定的集束化治疗包括“脓毒症 6 项”,涉及要在识别脓毒症后一小时内完成的基本步骤:[26]Daniels R, Nutbeam I, McNamara G, et al. The sepsis six and the severe sepsis resuscitation bundle: a prospective observational cohort study. Emerg Med J. 2011;28:507-512.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21036796?tool=bestpractice.com
参阅成人脓毒症主题,进一步了解详情。
胃肠道
阑尾炎和急性肠系膜缺血属于外科急症,如果不能确诊和及时治疗,可危及生命。
心血管疾病
突发胸痛因其存在可能危机生命的潜在疾病,需进行快速评估。持续监测脉搏、血压和血氧饱和度是常规护理。如果患者出现疼痛或呼吸困难或者血氧饱和度不足 90%,应给予高流量氧疗。也可能需要注射吗啡(静脉使用),以缓解严重疼痛。
初步检查包括十二导联心电图、CXR(胸部 X 片)、心肌损伤标记物、FBC 和肾功能检查。患者可能需要转移到重病监护病房。患者病情稳定后,应进行进一步检测,例如 V/Q 扫描、超声心动图、CT 或血管造影术,以确诊。
精神类疾病
对急性精神病患者的评估包括全面的病史询问和体格检查以及实验室检查。根据初步检查结果,可能有必要进行进一步的诊断性检查。必须考虑并排除器质性病因,方能确定精神病是由原发性精神障碍引起。急性精神病的最常见病因是消遣性、处方或非处方类药物的药物中毒。患有脑器质性疾病、或毒性、代谢过程伴有精神病的患者通常都有其他临床表现,这些表现很容易通过病史、神经系统检查或常规实验室检测查出。
呼吸病学
AMS(精神状态改变)常常伴有缺氧,通常继发于潜在疾病,例如系统性感染、肺栓塞、严重哮喘、COPD(慢性阻塞性肺病)、心力衰竭或心律失常或一氧化碳中毒。脉搏血氧测定法和 ABG(动脉血气分析)可确认是否存在缺氧。
用药效果
确定是否开始服用新的药物,目前的治疗药物是否更换,是否突然停止药物治疗是十分关键的。[28]Alagiakrishnan K, Wiens CA. An approach to drug induced delirium in the elderly. Postgrad Med J. 2004;80:388-393.http://pmj.bmj.com/content/80/945/388.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15254302?tool=bestpractice.com注意询问是否摄入非处方药物以及酒精。[6]Inouye SK. Delirium in hospitalized older patients. Clin Geriatr Med. 1998;14:745-764.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9799477?tool=bestpractice.com若误诊某些戒断状态可能会导致致命后果,所以药物联合治疗是急诊室所必须的。
中毒综合症
如果怀疑滥服药物,应进行毒物学筛查(包括处方药和非法药物)和酒精含量测定。所有婴幼儿发生急性精神状态变化均应考虑意外中毒,并且应基于疑似毒素进行治疗管理。亦应考虑撤药综合症。必须对所有中毒综合症进行快速诊断和紧急治疗。必须考虑到是否服用非法药物(如阿片剂、苯丙胺和苯二氮卓滥用)。
内分泌病
黏液性水肿昏迷通常发生在甲状腺功能减退的老年患者身上。肾上腺危象可出现于 Addison 病患者受到应激、外伤或感染或更常见的服用皮质类固醇药物时。甲状腺功能检查和血清皮质醇水平检测应作为 AMS(精神状态改变)病情检查的一部分。
代谢异常
危及生命的钠、钾和钙异常可能导致 AMS(精神状态改变)。代谢异常可能继发于肾脏或肝病。代谢病情检查是必不可少的。
血糖水平异常
低血糖和高血糖患者都可能导致意识混乱和意识水平降低。对伴有 AMS(精神状态改变)的患者,第一步应进行血糖检查,因其快速,简便易查并容易治疗。如果不能立即进行该检查,应经验性补充葡萄糖。