在考虑该病是否诊断为痴呆时,医生应首先将患者当前的认知水平、功能性能力与其发病前或“基线”水平进行比较。[19]Fletcher K. Dementia. In: Capezuti E, Zwicker D, Mezey M, et al. (eds). Evidence-based geriatric nursing protocols for best practice. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company; 2008:83-109.[20]Braes T, Milisen K, Foreman MD. Assessing cognitive function. In: Capezuti E, Zwicker D, Mezey M, et al. (eds). Evidence-based geriatric nursing protocols for best practice. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company; 2008:41-56. 如果出现了显著下降,则痴呆可通过以下手段诊断:病史、认知能力检查、体格检查、实验室检查和神经影像检查。[21]APA Work Group on Alzheimer's Disease and other Dementias, Rabins PV, Blacker D, Rovner BW, et al. American Psychiatric Association practice guideline for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, second edition. Am J Psychiatry. 2007 Dec;164(12 Suppl):5-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18340692?tool=bestpractice.com 回顾用药情况也很重要,因为一些药物可能会对认知功能产生不利影响。[22]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Dementia: supporting people with dementia and their carers in health and social care. September 2016 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg42
病史
通过询问患者、家属、护工及其他知情人以获之患者在认知、功能、性格、语言能力及行为等方面的改变。 退行性病变通常隐匿起病且病程缓慢进展(数个月至数年)。[23]Fleming KC, Adams AC, Petersen RC. Dementia: diagnosis and evaluation. Mayo Clin Proc. 1995 Nov;70(11):1093-107.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7475341?tool=bestpractice.com 突然改变、阶梯式减退或者在一次或数次卒中等临床事件后逐渐出现认知下降,提示存在血管性原因。[23]Fleming KC, Adams AC, Petersen RC. Dementia: diagnosis and evaluation. Mayo Clin Proc. 1995 Nov;70(11):1093-107.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7475341?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,轻微卒中往往未得以识别。急性(几天至几周)或亚急性(几周至几个月)的病程可能提示存在感染、代谢紊乱、颅内病灶的扩大、药物影响、卒中或脑积水。还可考虑克雅氏病。[4]Corey-Bloom J, Thal LJ, Galasko D, et al. Diagnosis and evaluation of dementia. Neurology. 1995 Feb;45(2):211-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7854514?tool=bestpractice.com 快速(数小时至数天)功能恶化提示有严重精神错乱状态或谵妄。[23]Fleming KC, Adams AC, Petersen RC. Dementia: diagnosis and evaluation. Mayo Clin Proc. 1995 Nov;70(11):1093-107.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7475341?tool=bestpractice.com
日常生活活动管理能力的变化[吃饭、洗澡、穿衣、如厕、移动(即行走)和节制]或工具性日常生活活动能力的变化(做家务、做饭、打扫卫生、购物、管理资金、管理药物、使用电话和运输)为疾病的诊断和分类提供了重要线索。[24]Rodakowski J, Skidmore ER, Reynolds CF 3rd, et al. Can performance on daily activities discriminate between older adults with normal cognitive function and those with mild cognitive impairment? J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014 Jul;62(7):1347-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4107156/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24890517?tool=bestpractice.com 如果所有领域出现了整体恶化,则提示为弥散性退行性过程,例如阿尔茨海默病,而某一领域不成比例的下降则提示为局灶性原因,例如肿瘤、卒中或额叶痴呆。
可能存在家族史、药物和酒精的使用、全身性疾病既往病史、或卒中危险因素(卒中、短暂性脑缺血发作、高血压、冠状动脉疾病和心房纤维性颤动的既往病史)。
询问帕金森病病史十分重要,因为帕金森病患者常出现痴呆,10年或以上病程后,约80%的帕金森病患者可出现痴呆。[25]Klingelhofer LR. Delirium, psychosis and dementia in patients with Parkinson's disease. Aktuelle Neurologie. 2011;38:303-08.
初步评估时,一些血管性痴呆患者可出现短暂性神经系统症状、步态异常史和大小便失禁。
正常颅压脑积水 (normal-pressure hydrocephalus, NPH) 患者可能有明显的步态障碍,伴有尿失禁和认知能力下降。[26]Petersen RC, Mokri B, Laws ER Jr. Surgical treatment of idiopathic hydrocephalus in elderly patients. Neurology. 1985 Mar;35(3):307-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3974888?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Graff-Radford NR, Godersky JC, Jones MP. Variables predicting surgical outcome in symptomatic hydrocephalus in the elderly. Neurology. 1989 Dec;39(12):1601-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2586777?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Mulrow CD, Feussner JR, Williams BC, et al. The value of clinical findings in the detection of normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Gerontol. 1987 May;42(3):277-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3571862?tool=bestpractice.com
认知检查
对于以下人群,建议实施认知能力筛查:80岁以上人群;迁入新环境的人群(例如:辅助生活设施或护理设施);年龄较大的住院患者(>65岁);接受手术的患者;有以下病史的老年患者:谵妄、抑郁症、糖尿病、帕金森病或不明原因的近期功能损失。[3]Thal LJ, Grundman M, Klauber MR. Dementia: characteristics of a referral population and factors associated with progression. Neurology. 1988 Jul;38(7):1083-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3386827?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Siu AL. Screening for dementia and investigating its causes. Ann Intern Med. 1991 Jul 15;115(2):122-32.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2058860?tool=bestpractice.com
Folstein简易精神状态量表(MMSE)依然是最为广泛使用的认知能力筛查工具。[30]Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. "Mini-mental state". A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975 Nov;12(3):189-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1202204?tool=bestpractice.com 满分30分,得分低于24分通常被判为异常结果, 然而也有人提出得分小于21分与认知损害相关性更大,而得分≥25分则认知损害的可能性较小; 介于21分和25分之间的对于判定患病的可能性参考意义不大。[6]Clarfield AM. The reversible dementias: do they reverse? Ann Intern Med. 1988 Sep 15;109(6):476-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3046450?tool=bestpractice.com 得分为21~25分的患者可考虑在3~6个月后重新评估。
对于轻度认知障碍(MCI)的检查,简易精神状态检查有时不够灵敏。[31]Tsoi KK, Chan JY, Hirai HW, et al. Cognitive tests to detect dementia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2015 Sep;175(9):1450-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26052687?tool=bestpractice.com 此类患者往往较为年轻,有较高的教育水平。 此外,简易精神状态检查对以下问题的检查能力不足:严重痴呆中的进行性认知下降和局灶性神经病变造成的认知障碍。[32]Mitchell AJ. A meta-analysis of the accuracy of the mini-mental state examination in the detection of dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Psychiatr Res. 2009 Jan;43(4):411-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18579155?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Peters R, Pinto EM. Predictive value of the Clock Drawing Test. A review of the literature. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2008;26(4):351-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18852487?tool=bestpractice.com 由于这些原因,认知检查应始终考虑到病史和功能水平相比于基线的下降情况。[34]Castilla-Rilo J, López-Arrieta J, Bermejo-Pareja F, et al. Instrumental activities of daily living in the screening of dementia in population studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007 Sep;22(9):829-36.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17236250?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Holsinger T, Deveau J, Boustani M, et al. Does this patient have dementia? JAMA. 2007 Jun 6;297(21):2391-404.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17551132?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Wolfs CA, Dirksen CD, Kessels A, et al. Economic evaluation of an integrated diagnostic approach for psychogeriatric patients: results of a randomized controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009 Mar;66(3):313-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19255381?tool=bestpractice.com
尽管目前已开发出许多其他量表作为认知障碍患者的筛查工具,例如阿尔茨海默病评估量表-认知部分 (Alzheimer’s Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive Section, ADAS-Cog)、马蒂斯痴呆评定量表 (Mattis Dementia Rating Scale, MDRS) 和蒙特利尔认知评估 (Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA),但一项综述指出,在诊断精确度方面,没有哪个量表优于其他量表。[37]Appels BA, Scherder E. The diagnostic accuracy of dementia-screening instruments with an administration time of 10 to 45 minutes for use in secondary care: a systematic review. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen. 2010 Jun;25(4):301-16.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20539025?tool=bestpractice.com一项 Cochrane 评价发现,并没有足够的证据支持在初级医疗保健机构使用简易智力状态评估量表 (Mini-Cog) 作为痴呆的一种筛查工具。[38]Seitz DP, Chan CC, Newton HT, et al. Mini-Cog for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias within a primary care setting. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;(2):CD011415.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD011415.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29470861?tool=bestpractice.com
使用标准化功能评估问卷来增加认知测试有助于区分早期痴呆患者和轻度认知障碍患者。[39]Teng E, Becker BW, Woo E, et al. Utility of the functional activities questionnaire for distinguishing mild cognitive impairment from very mild Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord. 2010 Oct-Dec;24(4):348-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2997338/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20592580?tool=bestpractice.com
可以使用神经心理测试对诊断过程进行补充。 如果临床医生确定,某患者既不是正常衰老也不是痴呆,但是与先前相比出现了认知下降,而仍具有大部分功能性活动,则该患者可被诊断为轻度认知障碍。[9]Petersen RC, Negash S. Mild cognitive impairment: an overview. CNS Spectr. 2008 Jan;13(1):45-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18204414?tool=bestpractice.com
在诊断过程中和随访时,还应评估该患者的内科与心理共病。[22]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Dementia: supporting people with dementia and their carers in health and social care. September 2016 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg42
体格检查
神经系统检查的结果有助于痴呆的鉴别诊断。然而,结果可能是非特异性的,即使在出现脑肿瘤或其他局灶性和结构性病变时也是如此。
颅神经检查:血管性痴呆患者可能有视野缺损。 共济失调、眼球震颤和侧向凝视麻痹可能提示有潜在的酒精相关性痴呆。 对于晚期痴呆患者,可能出现假性球麻痹(不自主的哭笑)。
运动检查:血管性痴呆患者可能出现偏瘫。 尽管阿尔茨海默病和正常老化中都可能出现孤立的椎体外系症状(例如面具脸、静止性震颤),但是健康老年人很少出现运动僵硬、运动迟缓、以及说话和姿势异常(尤其是二者组合出现)。[40]Merello M, Sabe L, Teson A, et al. Extrapyramidalism in Alzheimer's disease: prevalence, psychiatric, and neuropsychological correlates. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1994 Dec;57(12):1503-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1073233/pdf/jnnpsyc00042-0059.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7798981?tool=bestpractice.com
感觉检查:感觉检查结果(例如周围神经病)可能提示有潜在的营养缺乏症或代谢性或毒性状况。
协调和步态:一些血管性痴呆患者可出现短暂性步态异常。 维生素B12缺乏症患者可能出现步态异常、振动觉和位置觉受损、痉挛和感觉异常。 正常颅压脑积水患者可出现明显的步态障碍。[26]Petersen RC, Mokri B, Laws ER Jr. Surgical treatment of idiopathic hydrocephalus in elderly patients. Neurology. 1985 Mar;35(3):307-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3974888?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Graff-Radford NR, Godersky JC, Jones MP. Variables predicting surgical outcome in symptomatic hydrocephalus in the elderly. Neurology. 1989 Dec;39(12):1601-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2586777?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Mulrow CD, Feussner JR, Williams BC, et al. The value of clinical findings in the detection of normal pressure hydrocephalus. J Gerontol. 1987 May;42(3):277-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3571862?tool=bestpractice.com
反射:早期阿尔茨海默病的反射检查通常显示正常,尽管可能出现原始反射(眉心反射、抓握反射和鼻口部反射)。[41]Huff FJ, Belle SH, Shim YK, et al. Prevalence and prognostic value of neurologic abnormalities in Alzheimer's disease. Dementia. 1990;1:32-40. 血管性痴呆患者可出现不对称的深腱反射、单侧跖伸肌反射或视野缺损。 若出现全身肌阵挛(伴有明显的惊跳反射)和运动障碍,则提示克雅氏病。[4]Corey-Bloom J, Thal LJ, Galasko D, et al. Diagnosis and evaluation of dementia. Neurology. 1995 Feb;45(2):211-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7854514?tool=bestpractice.com
听力测试:中枢听觉功能障碍(即:在竞争言语背景下的语句识别)造成的听力损失反映了皮质处理异常,轻度痴呆患者的这种情况比老年性耳聋更为常见,老年性耳聋常见于健康老年人。[42]Gates GA, Karzon RK, Garcia P, et al. Auditory dysfunction in aging and senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type. Arch Neurol. 1995 Jun;52(6):626-34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7763213?tool=bestpractice.com
心血管检查:血管性痴呆患者可能有高血压、心律失常(如心房纤颤)、周围血管疾病(如颈动脉杂音)、瓣膜病或充血性心力衰竭。
精神评估
情绪、情感、思维过程和思维内容也应进行评估,因为抑郁症和其他精神疾病可能损害认知功能。 社交退缩、偏执和焦虑往往是阿尔茨海默病的早期迹象。[43]Oppenheim G. The earliest signs of Alzheimer's disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol. 1994 Apr-Jun;7(2):116-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8204188?tool=bestpractice.com 血管性痴呆患者常出现抑郁症和妄想,晚期阶段可出现“情绪失控”例如严重的情绪不稳定。[44]Cummings JL, Miller B, Hill MA, et al. Neuropsychiatric aspects of multi-infarct dementia and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Arch Neurol. 1987 Apr;44(4):389-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3827694?tool=bestpractice.com 皮克氏病早期阶段常常出现性格改变、去抑制性行为、社会退缩、自知力缺失。 正在演变为痴呆的帕金森病患者常常出现情绪和精神症状。[25]Klingelhofer LR. Delirium, psychosis and dementia in patients with Parkinson's disease. Aktuelle Neurologie. 2011;38:303-08.
若疑似有精神病和/或行为症状,可使用标准化量表进行评估,例如阿尔茨海默病病理行为评分表 (Behave-AD)、神经精神症状问卷 (NPI) 和柯恩-曼斯菲尔德激越问卷 (CMAI)。专门用于评估痴呆患者抑郁症状和情感淡漠综合征的工具包括:康奈尔痴呆抑郁量表、EURO-D 抑郁量表、情感淡漠问卷。行为障碍患者的评估不仅包括其认知和行为情况的客观评估,还包括其整体功能状态的评估。[45]Tampi RR, van Dyck CH, et al. Behavioral and psychological symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. In: Sun MK (ed). Research progress in Alzheimer's disease and dementia (Vol 2). Hauppauge, NY: Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, Nova Publishers; 2006:251-72. 标准化神经行为量表的使用将有助于根据痴呆类型对这些症状和行为进行定性和定量,从而优化治疗计划。[46]Mathias JL, Morphett K. Neurobehavioral differences between Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia: a meta-analysis. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2010 Aug;32(7):682-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20063255?tool=bestpractice.com
神经心理学测试
对于许多患者,这些更详尽的评估是不必要的。 当真的需要实施这些评估时,常用神经心理学测试的规范化数据可用于评估老年患者(高达100岁)的表现。[47]Ivnik RJ, Malec JF, Smith GE, et al. Mayo's older American normative studies. Clin Neuropsychol. 1992;6(Suppl):83-104. 当临床上疑似为痴呆时,建议使用神经心理学测试,但是初步评估结果是模棱两可的,或诊断是不明确的。 神经心理学测试还可用来区分抑郁症和痴呆,或区分弥散性疾病和局灶性疾病。 对于某些患者,神经心理测试可以提供详细的报告,证实痴呆中可见的思维障碍症状,并能够指出具体哪些大脑区域受累(例如额叶)。 当必须针对以下内容作出决定时,该测试可提供额外的信息:驾驶、职业、安全和能力。[48]Silva MT, Laks J, Engelhardt E. Neuropsychological tests and driving in dementia: a review of the recent literature. Rev Assoc Med Bras. 2009 Jul-Aug;55(4):484-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19750319?tool=bestpractice.com 对于判定预后和评估疗效,基线情况的评估十分重要。
实验室评估
没有实验室检查可用于证实痴呆的存在。 实施实验室检查是为了寻找痴呆的可逆原因或部分可逆原因。 在一项公布的研究中,5%的疑似痴呆的老年门诊患者有潜在代谢异常(甲状腺功能减退占其中3%、甲状旁腺功能亢进症、低钠血症或低血糖),研究者认为这种代谢异常造成或促成了认知障碍。[49]Larson EB, Reifler BV, Sumi SM, Canfield CG, Chinn NM. Diagnostic tests in the evaluation of dementia: a prospective study of 200 elderly outpatients. Arch Intern Med. 1986 Oct;146(10):1917-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3767535?tool=bestpractice.com 以下是所有患者的初步试验:
还应考虑以下试验:
对艾滋病高危患者实施HIV检测
尿液毒理学检查(用于阿片类、苯二氮类、大麻、可卡因)
结缔组织病分析(如果出现全身性血管受累证据)
根据病史,对重金属风险较大(例如:疑似中毒、社会性铅暴露)的患者实施尿液重金属分析
荧光梅毒螺旋体抗体吸收试验(当患者有性病接触史,且体检提示有瞳孔异常、脊髓受累或大脑受累时,考虑进行该试验)。
神经影像
虽然潜在的可逆颅内病变如肿瘤、血肿、脑积水等是痴呆的相对罕见病因,但痴呆患者应常规做神经影像学检查,以便发现这些易诊断且通常可治疗的病变。[50]Knopman DS, DeKosky ST, Cummings JL, et al. Practice parameter: diagnosis of dementia (an evidence-based review) - report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology. 2001 May 8;56(9):1143-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11342678?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Hejl AM, Hogh P, Waldemar G. Potentially reversible conditions in 1000 consecutive memory clinic patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;73:390-394.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1738080/pdf/v073p00390.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12235305?tool=bestpractice.com 而对于其他较常见的痴呆病因,神经影像学检查也越来越多地被用于预后判定的阳性或阴性预测指标。[52]Scheltens P, Fox N, Barkhof F, et al. Structural magnetic resonance imaging in the practical assessment of dementia: beyond exclusion. Lancet Neurol. 2002;1:13-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12849541?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Dormont D, Seidenwurm DJ; Expert Panel on Neurologic Imaging; American College of Radiology. Dementia and movement disorders. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2008 Jan;29(1):204-6.http://www.ajnr.org/cgi/content/full/29/1/204http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18192345?tool=bestpractice.com
为了评估疾病进展以及识别进行性轻度认知功能障碍 (MCI) 患者,可使用一些无创成像方法;但目前尚无公认的最为理想的影像学检查手段。头部计算机体层成像 (CT) 或头部磁共振成像 (MRI) 是主要方法。对于以下情况的评估,MRI 比 CT 扫描更敏感:萎缩、血管病变、骨骼附近病变,但是尚不清楚这些结果在大多数痴呆患者评估中的临床作用。氟代脱氧葡萄糖 (FDG)-正电子发射计算机断层显像 (PET) 是对当前监测技术的一种有用补充,其预测准确度高于单光子发射断层扫描或 MRI。[54]Yuan Y, Gu ZX, Wei WS. Fluorodeoxyglucose-positron-emission tomography, single-photon emission tomography, and structural MR imaging for prediction of rapid conversion to Alzheimer disease in patients with mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2009 Feb;30(2):404-10.http://www.ajnr.org/cgi/content/full/30/2/404http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19001534?tool=bestpractice.com
淀粉样蛋白PET扫描有希望用于更早更精确的诊断阿尔茨海默痴呆。[55]Jagust WJ. Amyloid imaging: coming to a PET scanner near you. Ann Neurol. 2010 Sep;68(3):277-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20818786?tool=bestpractice.com
2012 年的一项 Meta 分析表明,对于预测 MCI 向痴呆的进展,FDG-PET 扫描和淀粉样蛋白 PET 扫描都是具有潜在价值的技术。[56]Zhang S, Han D, Tan X, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of 18 F-FDG and 11 C-PIB-PET for prediction of short-term conversion to Alzheimer's disease in subjects with mild cognitive impairment. Int J Clin Pract. 2012 Feb;66(2):185-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22257044?tool=bestpractice.com然而,后续评价显示,并没有足够证据支持推荐在临床实践中常规使用 18F florbetapir、氟比他班 (florbetaben)、和 flutemetamol PET 成像,预测从轻度认知功能障碍至阿尔茨海默痴呆的进展。[57]Martinez G, Vernooij RWM, Fuentes Padilla P, et al. 18F PET with florbetapir for the early diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(11):CD012216.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD012216.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29164603?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Martinez G, Vernooij RWM, Fuentes Padilla P, et al. 18F PET with florbetaben for the early diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(11):CD012883.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD012883/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29164600?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Martínez G, Vernooij RW, Fuentes Padilla P, et al. 18F PET with flutemetamol for the early diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Nov 22;(11):CD012884.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD012884/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29164602?tool=bestpractice.com
脑脊液 (脑脊液) 分析
以下情况下可考虑对脑脊液 (CSF) 实施生化分析、免疫分析、微生物学检查或细胞学分析:
急性或亚急性起病的痴呆(尤其是出现发烧或颈项强直的患者)
初始临床表征不典型或急进性进展
年龄<55岁人群的痴呆
疑似梅毒
疑似感染或中枢神经系统恶性病变[4]Corey-Bloom J, Thal LJ, Galasko D, et al. Diagnosis and evaluation of dementia. Neurology. 1995 Feb;45(2):211-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7854514?tool=bestpractice.com
有证据表明存在脑积水的患者[60]Tarnaris A, Kitchen ND, Watkins LD. Noninvasive biomarkers in normal pressure hydrocephalus: evidence for the role of neuroimaging. J Neurosurg. 2009 May;110(5):837-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18991499?tool=bestpractice.com
克雅氏病[61]Pennington C, Chohan G, Mackenzie J, et al. The role of cerebrospinal fluid proteins as early diagnostic markers for sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Neurosci Lett. 2009 May 8;455(1):56-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19429106?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫抑制
脱髓鞘病
血管炎(例如:存在结缔组织疾病)。
对于临床诊断为轻度认知功能障碍 (MCI) 的患者,脑脊液的低 β 淀粉样蛋白 42 水平和高 t-tau 水平有助于预测疾病向阿尔茨海默病的转变。[62]Diniz BS, Pinto Júnior JA, Forlenza OV. Do CSF total tau, phosphorylated tau, and beta-amyloid 42 help to predict progression of mild cognitive impairment to Alzheimer's disease? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2008;9(3):172-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17886169?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Monge-Argiles JA, Sanchez-Paya J, Munoz-Ruiz C, et al. Biomarkers in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis of their predictive capacity for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. [Spanish]. Rev Neurol. 2010 Feb 16-28;50(4):193-200.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20198590?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,一份 Cochrane 系统评价的作者们认为,将检测 t-tau、p-tau 或 p-tau/ABeta 比值的脑脊液检查用于诊断阿尔茨海默病,证据仍然不足,并且该检查具有高度异质性,因此无法据此对目前的临床实践提出建议。[64]Ritchie C, Smailagic N, Noel-Storr AH, et al. CSF tau and the CSF tau/ABeta ratio for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease dementia and other dementias in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;(3):CD010803.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010803.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28328043?tool=bestpractice.com
在行腰穿收集脑脊液标本之前,需先行神经影像学检查以确定该项操作的安全性。
脑电图 (EEG)
总体而言,脑电图在痴呆初步评估中的作用有限。脑电图有时可能有助于鉴别抑郁和某些具有异常脑电图表现的痴呆类型。脑电图可用于对某种非典型疾病(例如克雅氏病)存在高度怀疑者,此时典型的脑电图结果可协助诊断。在阿尔茨海默痴呆和路易体痴呆患者中,脑电图上常出现广泛慢节律背景,这有助于区分此类患者与抑郁患者。
专业咨询
现有数据表明,初级保健医生能够正确识别轻度认知功能障碍 (MCI) 患者和轻度痴呆者未达半数。[65]Mitchell AJ, Meader N, Pentzek M. Clinical recognition of dementia and cognitive impairment in primary care: a meta-analysis of physician accuracy. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2011 Sep;124(3):165-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21668424?tool=bestpractice.com 新出现的数据也表明精神障碍可能是神经变性疾病的独立危险因素。[66]Woolley JD, Khan BK, Murthy NK, et al. The diagnostic challenge of psychiatric symptoms in neurodegenerative disease: rates of and risk factors for prior psychiatric diagnosis in patients with early neurodegenerative disease. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011 Feb;72(2):126-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3076589/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21382304?tool=bestpractice.com 不幸的是,如果神经退行性疾病患者最初被分类为精神障碍,那么这些患者可能会接受拖延的、错误的治疗,从而增加了这些患者的痛苦。 鉴于这一数据,当患者首次主诉记忆困难(有或无功能改变和/或神经精神症状)时,初级保健医生应尽早地正确地将患者转诊至痴呆护理专家或神经退行性疾病专家。
对于近期(<12个月)出现认知障碍的患者,若出现非典型表现时(例如卒中、癫痫发作或局灶性神经系统检查结果)、若临床上疑似记忆力减退或痴呆但认知测试显示正常时、若诊断不明确时,可考虑实施神经病学专业评估。
使用指南(例如欧洲神经学科学联盟 [European Federation of Neurological Societies, EFNS] 的阿尔茨海默病诊断指南)可以改善诊断精确度。[67]Hort J, O'Brien JT, Gainotti G, et al. EFNS guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurol. 2010 Oct;17(10):1236-48.http://www.efns.org/fileadmin/user_upload/guidline_papers/EFNS_guideline_2010_diagnosis_and_management_of_AD.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20831773?tool=bestpractice.com 实践指南可帮助初级保健医生(经常是对有认知问题的患者进行评估的首位临床医生)正确诊断痴呆患者。[68]Galvin JE, Sadowsky CH, NINCDS-ADRDA. Practical guidelines for the recognition and diagnosis of dementia. J Am Board Fam Med. 2012 May-Jun;25(3):367-82.http://www.jabfm.org/content/25/3/367.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22570400?tool=bestpractice.com
基因检测
对于记录有痴呆家族史和要求进行基因检测的认知障碍患者,可实施基因检测。[69]Goldman JS, Hahn SE, Catania JW, et al. Genetic counseling and testing for Alzheimer disease: joint practice guidelines of the American College of Medical Genetics and the National Society of Genetic Counselors. Genet Med. 2011 Jun;13(6):597-605.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3326653/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21577118?tool=bestpractice.com
确诊
痴呆的诊断由患者死后的大脑神经病理学评估确认。美国国家衰老研究院-阿尔茨海默病协会 (National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer’s Association) 发布了更新的阿尔茨海默病神经病理学评估指南。[70]Montine TJ, Phelps CH, Beach TG, et al. National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association guidelines for the neuropathologic assessment of Alzheimer's disease: a practical approach. Acta Neuropathol. 2012 Jan;123(1):1-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3268003/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22101365?tool=bestpractice.com