呼吸性碱中毒可能会出现各种临床症状。因为呼吸急促,低碳酸血症是一种常见的生理表现。这可能是由于呼吸机设置不当,或是因为缺氧、中枢呼吸驱动增加以及体温过高所致。低碳酸血症甚至可能用来治疗颅内高压或新生儿肺动脉高压等。
肺
低氧血症本身就可引起呼吸性碱中毒,而且鉴别诊断要考虑的因素也比较多。低氧血症可通过脉搏血氧测定法或动脉血气进行诊断。后者的优点是可以诊断酸碱是否失衡。根据低氧血症的程度和病因,其治疗方法包括使用输氧鼻管或氧气面罩辅助供氧,采用无创正压通气或插管法,以及采用具有呼气末正压 (PEEP) 的机械通气。低氧血症纠正后,应立即明确并治疗原发病。
低氧血症和组织缺氧会通过降低 PaO2 和增加 H+ 浓度,从而对颈动脉体中的外周化学感受器产生影响,导致通气过度。[49]Caruana-Montaldo B, Gleeson K, Zwillich CW. The control of breathing in clinical practice. Chest. 2000;117:205-225.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631221?tool=bestpractice.com出现低氧血症时,反应强度依病情的严重性而定。如果 PaO2 降到 70 mmHg 以下,化学感受器的发放频率和分钟通气量会快速增加。身处高原地区可能会引起低氧血症,所以根据这个机制,也会出现呼吸性碱中毒。[50]Grocott MP, Martin DS, Levett DZ, et al. Arterial blood gases and oxygen content in climbers on Mount Everest. N Engl J Med. 2009;360:140-149.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0801581#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19129527?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Samaja M, Mariani C, Prestini A, et al. Acid-base balance and O2 transport at high altitude. Acta Physiol Scand. 1997;159:249-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9079156?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Fan JL, Burgess KR, Basnyat R, et al. Influence of high altitude on cerebrovascular and ventilatory responsiveness to CO2. J Physiol. 2010;588:539-549.http://jp.physoc.org/content/588/3/539.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20026618?tool=bestpractice.com
缺氧诱发血管收缩,而呼吸性碱中毒会恶化肺内分流和体循环氧合。[53]Domino KB, Lu Y, Eisenstein BL, et al. Hypocapnia worsens arterial blood oxygenation and increases VA/Q heterogeneity in canine pulmonary edema. Anesthesiology. 1993;78:91-99.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8424577?tool=bestpractice.com低碳酸血症也会引起肺损伤,而且会在缺血性再灌注后加重急性肺损伤。[54]Laffey JG, Engelberts D, Kavanagh BP. Injurious effects of hypocapnic alkalosis in the isolated lung. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:399-405.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.9911026http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10934060?tool=bestpractice.com该机制与毛细血管通透性增加相关。[54]Laffey JG, Engelberts D, Kavanagh BP. Injurious effects of hypocapnic alkalosis in the isolated lung. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:399-405.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.9911026http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10934060?tool=bestpractice.com除了低氧血症,支气管管壁和肺部的迷走神经受体受到刺激后也可导致呼吸急促。对于患有哮喘的患者,气道中的刺激性受体也会引起呼吸急促。[55]Fujimori K, Satoh M, Arakawa M. Ventilatory response to continuous incremental changes in respiratory resistance in patients with mild asthma. Chest. 1996;109:1525-1531.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8769505?tool=bestpractice.com低碳酸血症通过刺激作用和慢适应肺牵张感受器也会在哮喘发作早期对支气管收缩产生刺激。[56]van den Elshout FJ, van Herwaarden CL, Folgering HT. Effects of hypercapnia and hypocapnia on respiratory resistance in normal and asthmatic subjects. Thorax. 1991;46:28-32.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1020910/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1908137?tool=bestpractice.com临床证明如果患有间质性肺病和肺纤维化,弹性负荷增加以及在胸壁机械受体和肺内受体刺激的作用下,也会引起呼吸急促。[57]Javaheri S, Sicilian L. Lung function, breathing pattern, and gas exchange in interstitial lung disease. Thorax. 1992;47:93-97.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC463579/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1549829?tool=bestpractice.com其他可能会诱发低碳酸血症的实质肺病包括心源性肺水肿和高原肺水肿。[58]Horrobin D, Cholmondeley HG. High altitude pulmonary oedema: pathophysiology and recommendations for prevention and treatment. East Afr Med J. 1972;49:327-331.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5053322?tool=bestpractice.com急性肺损伤中出现的呼吸性碱中毒可能是 ARDS 的早期症状,其在胸部 X 线检查肺部发生浸润之前出现。[59]Trimble C, Smith DE, Rosenthal MH, et al. Pathophysiologic role of hypocarbia in post-traumatic pulmonary insufficiency. Am J Surg. 1971;122:633-638.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5112069?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Mortelliti MP, Manning HL. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am Fam Physician. 2002;65:1823-1831.http://www.aafp.org/afp/2002/0501/p1823.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12018805?tool=bestpractice.com原发性自发性气胸可能伴随呼吸性碱中毒出现,特别是当伴有疼痛、焦虑或低氧血症时。[61]Sahn SA, Heffner JE. Spontaneous pneumothorax. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:868-874.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10727592?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Subotic D, Mandaric D, Gajic M, et al. Uncertainties in the current understanding of gas exchange in spontaneous pneumothorax: effective lung ventilation may persist in a smaller-sized pneumothorax. Med Hypotheses. 2005;64:1144-1149.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15823704?tool=bestpractice.com但是,低碳酸血症取决于气胸的大小,只有当气胸引起肺容量减小 50% 以上时才会出现低碳酸血症。[63]Manganelli D, Palla A, Donnamaria V, et al. Clinical features of pulmonary embolism: doubts and certainties. Chest. 1995;107(suppl):25S-32S.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7813325?tool=bestpractice.com
呼吸性碱中毒常见于肺栓塞 (PE) 和肺动脉高血压。[64]Kuo PC, Plotkin JS, Johnson LB, et al. Distinctive clinical features of portopulmonary hypertension. Chest. 1997;112:980-986.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9377962?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Jones PW, Huszczuk A, Wasserman K. Cardiac output as a controller of ventilation through changes in right ventricular load. J Appl Physiol. 1982;53:218-224.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7118635?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Milsom WK, Sadig T. Interaction between norepinephrine and hypoxia on carotid body chemoreception in rabbits. J Appl Physiol. 1983;55:1893-1898.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6662780?tool=bestpractice.com习惯上,新生儿肺动脉高压造成的呼吸性碱中毒和低碳酸血症需要暂时治疗。[4]Allen CH, Ward JD. An evidence-based approach to management of increased intracranial pressure. Crit Care Clin. 1998;14:485-495.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9700443?tool=bestpractice.com[5]Walsh-Sukys MC, Tyson JE, Wright LL, et al. Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn in the era before nitric oxide: practice variation and outcomes. Pediatrics. 2000;105:14-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10617698?tool=bestpractice.com随着一氧化氮和其他血管舒张药的使用,新生儿肺动脉高压造成的低碳酸血症的治疗应逐渐减少。[1]Arbus GS, Herbert LA, Levesque PR, et al. Characterization and clinical application of the "significance band" for acute respiratory alkalosis. N Engl J Med. 1969;280:117-123.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5782512?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Latini G, Del Vecchio A, De Felice C, et al. Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn: therapeutical approach. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2008;8:1507-1513.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19075808?tool=bestpractice.com
心血管
低氧血症和组织缺氧会通过降低 PaO2 和增加 H+ 浓度对颈动脉体中的外周化学感受器产生影响,从而引起过度通气症。[49]Caruana-Montaldo B, Gleeson K, Zwillich CW. The control of breathing in clinical practice. Chest. 2000;117:205-225.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10631221?tool=bestpractice.com出现低氧血症时,反应强度依病情的严重性而定。如果 PaO2 降到 70 mmHg 以下,化学感受器的刺激发送频率和分钟通气量会相继快速增加。各种身体机能紊乱可引起低氧血症,例如,紫绀性心脏病,根据此机制,低氧血症又可能引起呼吸性碱中毒。组织缺氧时,乳酸盐生成量增加使 H+ 浓度升高,这将对颈动脉体产生刺激,从而引起过度通气。组织缺氧诱发过度通气的机制也见于心源性休克。根据该机制,组织缺氧也会诱发过度通气。伪呼吸性碱中毒是一种与非典型呼吸性酸中毒相关的动脉低碳酸血症。如果肺灌注减小到一定程度,但依然保持通气(例如,在心肺复苏中),就会出现此种情况。在此种情况中,中心静脉血的 PCO2 偏高,而 pH 值较低,但体循环动脉血的 PCO2 较低,而 pH 值正常或偏高。通过比较动脉血气和静脉血气进行诊断。[67]Androgue HJ, Madias NE. Management of life-threatening acid-base disorders: second of two parts. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:107-111.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9420343?tool=bestpractice.com
血液系统
严重贫血和血红蛋白病(例如,地中海贫血和镰状细胞贫血)与组织缺氧相关,其中,乳酸盐生成量增加和H+ 浓度升高会对颈动脉体产生刺激作用。而这将引起过度通气和呼吸性碱中毒。
胃肠道和肝脏
急性(非慢性)呼吸性碱中毒时,胃肠道和肝脏会出现症状。急性呼吸性碱中毒伴随有恶心、呕吐和胃肠道活动性增强。结肠张力增加的机制取决于低碳酸血症(而不是血碳酸正常的过度通气),低碳酸血症似乎对结肠平滑肌具有直接影响。结肠张力变化的另一个可能机制是通过低碳酸血症诱发的中枢自主神经控制调节,但是副交感神经和交感神经调节的相关影响尚不明确。[41]Bharucha AE, Camilleri M, Ford MJ, et al. Hyperventilation alters colonic motor and sensory function: effects and mechanisms in humans. Gastroenterology. 1996;111:368-377.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8690201?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Ford MJ, Camelleri MJ, Hanson RB, et al. Hyperventilation, central autonomic control, and colonic tone in humans. Gut. 1995;37:499-504.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1382900/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7489935?tool=bestpractice.com
因呼吸驱动增强而导致的呼吸急促是肝病的常见症状,例如,肝硬化,伴随有门脉性肺动脉高压、肝肺综合征以及暴发性肝功能衰竭。[65]Jones PW, Huszczuk A, Wasserman K. Cardiac output as a controller of ventilation through changes in right ventricular load. J Appl Physiol. 1982;53:218-224.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7118635?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Bernstein D, Tripodi J. Fulminant hepatic failure. Crit Care Clin. 1998;14:181-197.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9561813?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Brashear RE. Hyperventilation syndrome. Lung. 1983;161:257-273.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6138480?tool=bestpractice.com虽然尚不清楚使肝功能障碍患者出现呼吸急促症状的确切机制,但是,猜测孕酮增加、氨以及各种胺类(假性神经递质)可能与中枢呼吸驱动加强有关。
医源性
机械通气可能会出现过度通气,包括高频率震荡通气。[70]Nevin M, Colchester AC, Adams S, et al. Evidence for involvement of hypocapnia and hypoperfusion in aetiology of neurologic deficit after cardiopulmonary bypass. Lancet. 1987;2:1493-1495.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2892051?tool=bestpractice.com呼吸性碱中毒也与使用高效体外技术相关,例如,心肺转流术和体外膜肺氧合 (ECMO)。[71]Graziani LJ, Gringlas M, Baumgart S. Cerebrovascular complications and neurodevelopmental sequelae of neonatal ECMO. Clin Perinatol. 1997;24:655-675.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9394865?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Nazaroğlu H, Ozmen CA, Akay HO, et al. 64-MDCT pulmonary angiography and CT venography in the diagnosis of thromboembolic disease. Am J Roentgenol. 2009;192:654-661.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19234261?tool=bestpractice.com
感染
脓毒症会引起过度通气,而代谢性酸中毒和直接肺损伤介导了过度通气。内毒素可能在诱发过度通气时,对迷走神经 C 纤维传入神经具有调控作用。[73]Blair E. Hypocapnia and gram-negative bacteremic shock. Am J Surg. 1970;119:433-439.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5437850?tool=bestpractice.com感染性休克也可能会继发于组织缺氧的过度通气。伴有低碳酸血症的呼吸急促不仅常见于脓毒症,而且也是全身炎症反应综合征 (SIRS) 的诊断标准之一。[74]Hannart B. Pickett CK, Moore LG. Effects of estrogen and progesterone on carotid body neural output responsiveness to hypoxia. J Appl Physiol. 1990;68:1909-1916.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2113903?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Rhodes A, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock, 2012. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39:165-228.http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-012-2769-8/fulltext.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23361625?tool=bestpractice.com
低碳酸血症亦可见于病变弥漫的疾病,如脑膜炎和脑炎。[59]Trimble C, Smith DE, Rosenthal MH, et al. Pathophysiologic role of hypocarbia in post-traumatic pulmonary insufficiency. Am J Surg. 1971;122:633-638.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5112069?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Nystad D, Salvesen R, Nielsen EW. Brain stem encephalitis with central neurogenic hyperventilation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2007;78:107-108.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17172579?tool=bestpractice.com对于患有脑脊膜炎的患者,可能是脑脊液 (CSF) 乳酸盐增多引起 CSF pH 值下降,从而对延髓化学感受器产生刺激,使分钟通气量增加。[77]Sears MR, O'Donoghue JM, Fisher HK, et al. Effect of experimental pneumococcal meningitis on respiration and circulation in the rabbit. J Clin Invest. 1974;54:18-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC301520/pdf/jcinvest00159-0026.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4152001?tool=bestpractice.com
代谢与激素
在对中枢呼吸驱动的直接刺激作用下,孕激素也会引起呼吸性碱中毒,使中枢化学感受器对二氧化碳越加敏感,也使颈动脉体对缺氧更加敏感。[74]Hannart B. Pickett CK, Moore LG. Effects of estrogen and progesterone on carotid body neural output responsiveness to hypoxia. J Appl Physiol. 1990;68:1909-1916.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2113903?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Tenholder MF, South-Paul JE. Dyspnea in pregnancy. Chest. 1989;96:381-388.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2666047?tool=bestpractice.com证明孕酮为介导的过度通气会出现在孕妇妊娠早期和月经周期后期以及服用孕激素的激素替代治疗时。[79]Wise RA, Polito AJ, Krishnan V. Respiratory physiologic changes in pregnancy. Immunol Allergy Clin N Am. 2006;26:1-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16443140?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Damas-Mora J, Davies L, Taylor W, et al. Menstrual respiratory changes and symptoms. Br J Psychiatry. 1980;136:492-497.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6770935?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Orr-Walker BJ, Horne AM, Evans MC, et al. Hormone replacement therapy causes a respiratory alkalosis in normal postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:1997-2001.http://jcem.endojournals.org/content/84/6/1997.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10372700?tool=bestpractice.com
体温过高时,通过提高呼吸频率、潮气量,也可诱发呼吸性碱中毒,也称为高热性呼吸增强。虽然目前尚不十分明确高热性呼吸增强的机制,但这可能与血气和 pH 值以及体温之间的相互作用有关。[82]White MD. Components and mechanisms of thermal hyperpnea. J Appl Physiol. 2006;101:655-663.http://jap.physiology.org/content/101/2/655.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16565352?tool=bestpractice.com过度通气会导致选择性的大脑降温,这是一种用于降低体液分泌物的机制。
神经系统
CNS 的弥漫性和局灶性疾病可能会导致呼吸性碱中毒。弥散性疾病(例如,头部损伤)会出现低碳酸血症。大量研究表明,在外伤性脑损伤轻重程度不同的未插管患者中,有 40% 的患者出现了低碳酸血症。[83]Davis DP, Idris AH, Sise MJ, et al. Early ventilation and outcome in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2006;34:1202-1208.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16484927?tool=bestpractice.com低碳酸血症可能是一种保护机制,尤其是在缺氧的情况下。一项健康受试者研究表明低碳性缺氧可对大脑动态的自我调节进行有效保护。[84]Ogoh S, Nakahara H, Ainslie PN, et al. The effect of oxygen on dynamic cerebral autoregulation: critical role of hypocapnia. J Appl Physiol. 2010;108:538-543.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20056845?tool=bestpractice.com但相反的是,一项深入研究表明如果罹患缺氧缺血性脑病的婴儿在早期出现低碳酸血症,出现死亡或神经发育性残障的风险就会非常大。[85]Pappas A, Shankaran S, Laptook AR, et al; Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. Hypocarbia and adverse outcome in neonatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. J Pediatr. 2011;158:752-758.e1.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3229432/?report=classichttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21146184?tool=bestpractice.com
局灶性疾病(例如脑肿块或卒中)可能会导致呼吸性碱中毒。对 21 份病例报告的综述表明患有星形细胞瘤、淋巴瘤、喉部癌转移、髓母细胞瘤和桥脑胶质瘤的患者所出现的呼吸性碱中毒均与脑干相关。[86]Tarulli AW, Lim C, Bui JD, et al. Central neurogenic hyperventilation: a case report and discussion of pathophysiology. Arch Neurol. 2005;62:1632-1634.http://archneur.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=789555http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16216951?tool=bestpractice.com引起呼吸性碱中毒的机制是中枢神经性过度通气。一项小型研究表明,在患有缺血性卒中(与脑干相关)的患者中,大部分人具有呼吸急促或潮式呼吸的症状,这通常都与呼吸性碱中毒相关。[87]Lee MC, Klassen AC, Heaney LM, et al. Respiratory rate and pattern disturbances in acute brain stem infarction. Stroke. 1976;7:382-385.http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/reprint/7/4/382http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/960158?tool=bestpractice.com另一项对 27 名卒中(与脑干不相关)患者(24 名为缺血性,3 名为出血性)的研究表明,有 40% 的人患有呼吸性碱中毒。[88]Scialdone AM. Thalamic hemorrhage imitating hyperventilation. Ann Emerg Med. 1990;19:817-819.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2389866?tool=bestpractice.com在该研究中,3 名患有出血性卒中的患者虽然有中枢神经性过度通气症状,但他们没有出现呼吸性碱中毒。[89]Badr MS. Central sleep apnea. Prim Care Clin Office Pract. 2005;32:361-374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15935190?tool=bestpractice.com此外,在该研究中,患有梗阻性脑积水的患者在内镜第三脑室造瘘术中也出现了急性呼吸性碱中毒的并发症。[90]Sung H, Sohn J, Kim J, et al. Acute respiratory alkalosis occurring after endoscopic third ventriculostomy: a case report. Korean J Anesthesiol. 2010;59(Suppl):S194-S196.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3030035/pdf/kjae-59-S194.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21286439?tool=bestpractice.com
呼吸性碱中毒也见于非高碳酸血症的中枢性呼吸睡眠暂停 (CSA) 中,是 CSA 中最常见的形式。[91]Solin P, Roebuck T, Johns DP, et al. Peripheral and central ventilatory responses in central sleep apnea with and without congestive heart failure. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 2000;162:2194-2200.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.162.6.2002024http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11112137?tool=bestpractice.com在这种病中,呼吸驱动的波动与过度通气和低碳酸血症相关,其特征是对高碳酸血症的通气反应增强。[92]Xie A, Rutherford R, Rankin F, et al. Hypocapnia and increased ventilatory responsiveness in patients with idiopathic central sleep apnea. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 1995;152:1950-1955.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8520761?tool=bestpractice.com[93]Sin DD, Fitzgerald F, Parker JD, et al. Risk factors for central and obstructive sleep apnea in 450 men and women with congestive heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1101-1106.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.160.4.9903020http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10508793?tool=bestpractice.com白天低碳酸血症与非高碳酸血症 CSA 的相关性表明慢性低碳酸血症可能与此疾病的发生机制相关。[93]Sin DD, Fitzgerald F, Parker JD, et al. Risk factors for central and obstructive sleep apnea in 450 men and women with congestive heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1101-1106.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.160.4.9903020http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10508793?tool=bestpractice.com[94]Sankri-Tarbichi AG, Rowley JA, Badr MS. Expiratory pharyngeal narrowing during central hypocapnic hypopnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009;179:313-319.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19201929?tool=bestpractice.com因此,夜间低碳酸血症可能由 CSA 所致,而白天低碳酸血症预示患者可能具有 CSA 风险。此外,近期的一项研究表明低碳酸血症诱发的中枢呼吸不足(在吸气做功时,与对照比,气流减小 30% 以上)可能会在呼气相中引发咽腔缩小,而这可能是睡眠中的上气道梗阻的发生机制。[95]Tang GJ, Kou YR, Lin YS. Peripheral neural modulation of endotoxin-induced hyperventilation. Crit Care Med. 1998;26:1558-1563.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9751593?tool=bestpractice.com
习惯上,颅高压患者的呼吸性碱中毒和低碳酸血症需要给予临时治疗。[4]Allen CH, Ward JD. An evidence-based approach to management of increased intracranial pressure. Crit Care Clin. 1998;14:485-495.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9700443?tool=bestpractice.com针对美国医师所进行的调查发现 36% 的神经外科医师和 46% 的急诊室医生对严重外伤性脑损伤的患者采用常规预防通气过度。[12]Marion DW, Spiegel TP. Changes in the management of severe traumatic brain injury: 1991-1997. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:16-18.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10667493?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Huizenga JE, Zink B, Maio R, et al. The penetrance of head injury management guidelines into the practice patterns of Michigan emergency physicians. Acad Emerg Med. 2000;7:1171.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11015283?tool=bestpractice.com治疗颅内高压患者的低碳酸血症可降低在 ICU 中治疗的时间。[14]Rusnak M, Janciak I, Majdan M, et al. Severe traumatic brain injury in Austria VI: effects of guideline-based management. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2007;119:64-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17318752?tool=bestpractice.com但是过度低碳酸血症治疗会诱发大脑血管收缩,加重脑缺血。而实际上,当前的外伤性脑损伤治疗指南并不建议采用预防性过度通气(PaCO2 低于或等于 25 mmHg),而且早期过度通气(24 小时内)会造成更严重的后果。[96]Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery. 2017;80:6-15.https://braintrauma.org/uploads/03/12/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27654000?tool=bestpractice.com尚未证实治疗低碳酸血症的优势,因此只能用于治疗威胁生命的颅内压升高。[96]Carney N, Totten AM, O'Reilly C, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. Neurosurgery. 2017;80:6-15.https://braintrauma.org/uploads/03/12/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27654000?tool=bestpractice.com[97]Curley G, Kavanagh BP, Laffey JG. Hypocapnia and the injured brain: more harm than benefit. Crit Care Med. 2010;38:1348-1359.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20228681?tool=bestpractice.com
药物
通过过度通气诱发呼吸性碱中毒的已知药物包括水杨酸盐(过量)、尼古丁、黄嘌呤衍生物(例如,茶碱)、儿茶酚胺(例如,特布他林或沙美特罗、去甲肾上腺素等 β2 受体兴奋剂)、呼吸兴奋剂(例如,尼可刹米、多沙普仑)和孕激素(例如,甲羟孕酮)。[98]Moser KM, Luchsinger PC, Adamson JS, et al. Respiratory stimulation with intravenous doxapram in respiratory failure: a double-blind co-operative study. N Engl J Med. 1973;288:427-431.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4567320?tool=bestpractice.com[99]Irwin GR Jr. Cerebrospinal fluid pH and respiratory rate in bacterial meningitis. Dis Nerv Syst. 1972;33:276-279.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4402242?tool=bestpractice.com
精神疾病
过度通气综合征是一种常见于三四十岁女性的临床病症,表现为精神异常(尤其是焦虑和恐慌)相关的过度通气。[100]Hornsveld HK, Garssen B, Dop MJ, et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled study of the hyperventilation provocation test and the validity of the hyperventilation syndrome. Lancet. 1996;348:154-158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8684155?tool=bestpractice.com可能不存在焦虑成分,也很难区分焦虑是过度通气的原因或结果。尚不明确过度通气综合征的病因学,只是一种排除诊断。确诊可能依靠通气过度激发实验。如果患者在自发性过度通气中出现与发作时类似的症状,则该检查为阳性。一项研究发现该检查存在较高的假阳性率,因此这对该检查的有效性提出了质疑。[100]Hornsveld HK, Garssen B, Dop MJ, et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled study of the hyperventilation provocation test and the validity of the hyperventilation syndrome. Lancet. 1996;348:154-158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8684155?tool=bestpractice.com广泛性焦虑障碍可能会出现与呼吸性碱中毒类似的许多症状(例如,眩晕、健忘和身体疾病)。PaCO2<20 mmHg 时就会出现这些症状。[43]Rafferty GF, Saisch GN, Gardner WN. Relation of hypocapnic symptoms to rate of fall of end-tidal PCO2 in normal subjects. Respir Med. 1992;86:335-340.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1448588?tool=bestpractice.com