呼吸道感染
任何肺炎/呼吸道感染患者的初始抗生素治疗通常依据疾病的严重程度、是否出现合并症以及社区耐药菌的流行情况。[49]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com无论什么病原体,疾病严重程度评分都有助于确定患者是否可作为门诊患者或需要住院或重症监护患者来治疗。严重程度评分基于年龄、呼吸率、脉搏、血压和体温等因素。有许多可用于评分的系统,例如肺炎严重度指数(PSI)[50]Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:243-250.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199701233360402#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8995086?tool=bestpractice.com或意识模糊、尿素氮、呼吸率、血压、65 岁以上年龄(CURB-65)指数,[51]Lim WS, van der Eerden MM, Laing R, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study. Thorax. 2003;58:377-382.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1746657/pdf/v058p00377.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12728155?tool=bestpractice.com这两个系统都是可用的在线工具。Pneumonia severity index calculatorCURB-65 index calculator
大环内酯或四环素一线治疗非复杂性和更严重的社区获得性肺炎中的支原体感染时通常有效。有必要考虑采取经验治疗方法,以确保对非典型微生物的覆盖。如果发现了肺炎的某个特定病原体,可针对该特定病原体使用抗菌疗法。[49]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com在过去几年中,亚洲报告的对大环内酯类耐药的肺炎支原体病例不断增加(高达80%),[52]Liu Y, Ye X, Zhang H, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates and molecular analysis of macrolide-resistant strains from Shanghai, China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:2160-2162.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2681541/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19273684?tool=bestpractice.com但中东(30%)、[53]Averbuch D, Hidalgo-Grass C, Moses AE, et al. Macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Israel, 2010. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:1079-1082.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3358208/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21749775?tool=bestpractice.com欧洲(10%)[21]Uldum SA, Bangsborg JM, Gahrn-Hansen B, et al. Epidemic of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Denmark, 2010 and 2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17:pii:20073.http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=20073http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22321137?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Peuchant O, Ménard A, Renaudin H, et al. Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in France directly detected in clinical specimens by real-time PCR and melting curve analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64:52-58.http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/64/1/52?view=long&pmid=19429926http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19429926?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Spuesens EB, Meijer A, Bierschenk D, et al. Macrolide resistance determination and
molecular typing of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory specimens collected
between 1997 and 2008 in the Netherlands. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:1999-2004.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22495561?tool=bestpractice.com及美国(10%)较低。[56]Diaz MH, Benitez AJ, Winchell JM. Investigations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in the United States: trends in molecular typing and macrolide resistance from 2006 to 2013. J Clin Microbiol. 2015;53:124-130.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25355769?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Yamada M, Buller R, Bledsoe S, et al. Rising rates of macrolide-resistant
Mycoplasma pneumoniae in the central United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:409-411.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22209916?tool=bestpractice.com在对大环内酯类耐药的肺炎支原体肺炎患病率较高的国家,四环素类(多西环素或米诺环素)可能比大环内酯类或喹诺酮类的效果更好。[58]Okada T, Morozumi M, Tajima T, et al. Rapid effectiveness of minocycline or doxycycline against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in a 2011 outbreak among
Japanese children. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:1642-1649.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22972867?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Kawai Y, Miyashita N, Kubo M, et al. Therapeutic efficacy of macrolides, minocycline, and tosufloxacin against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in pediatric patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:2252-2258.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23459497?tool=bestpractice.com 若既往抗生素治疗失败或已证实特定药物的敏感性,则可考虑将氟喹诺酮抗生素作为二线疗法。在严重病例中,静脉注射抗生素可能适用于医院环境,直至患者临床缓解或可口服药物。
氟喹诺酮类可能是伴有诸如糖尿病、酗酒以及慢性心脏、肺脏、肝脏或肾脏疾病等合并症肺炎患者的优选药物。氟喹诺酮类通常可提供比非典型肺炎更广的抗菌谱覆盖面;但是,其使用可能会促进氟喹诺酮耐药的发生,因此,不鼓励在社区广泛使用该药物。[49]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com
泰利霉素是一种大环内酯,由于肝毒性,不建议将其用于治疗社区获得性肺炎。[49]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com支原体对 β-内酰胺类抗生素无反应,因为该类微生物没有细胞壁。
泌尿生殖感染
支原体相关性 STDs的治疗可依据疾病的临床表现和是否出现诸如奈瑟氏菌属和衣原体等其他病原体而定。如果未诊断出诸如奈瑟氏菌属和衣原体等其他病原体,可考虑使用大环内酯类抗生素或四环素类进行支原体抗生素治疗。如果分离出了生殖支原体,则有必要考虑进行药敏试验。但是,生殖支原体难以培养,而且其与肺炎支原体相似的大环内酯类耐药病例已有完备记录。[60]Walker J, Fairley CK, Bradshaw CS, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium incidence, organism load, and treatment failure in a cohort of young Australian women. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1094-1100.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23300236?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Touati A, Peuchant O, Jensen JS, et al. Direct detection of macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma genitalium isolates from clinical specimens from France by use of real-time PCR and melting curve analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 2014;52:1549-1555.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24574291?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Bissessor M, Tabrizi SN, Twin J, et al. Macrolide resistance and azithromycin failure in a Mycoplasma genitalium-infected cohort and response of azithromycin failures to alternative antibiotic regimens. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:1228-1236.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/8/1228.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25537875?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Pond MJ, Nori AV, Witney AA, et al. High prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Mycoplasma genitalium in nongonococcal urethritis: the need for routine testing and the inadequacy of current treatment options. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:631-637.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3922211/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24280088?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Salado-Rasmussen K, Jensen JS. Mycoplasma genitalium testing pattern and macrolide resistance: a Danish nationwide retrospective survey. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;59:24-30.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/59/1/24.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24729494?tool=bestpractice.com 氟喹诺酮类可作为二线治疗用于敏感的微生物,[28]Taylor-Robinson D, Jensen JS. Mycoplasma genitalium: from Chrysalis to multicolored butterfly. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2011;24:498-514.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21734246?tool=bestpractice.com但已有耐药报道。[65]Kikuchi M, Ito S, Yasuda M, et al. Remarkable increase in fluoroquinolone-resistant Mycoplasma genitalium in Japan. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014;69:2376-2382.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24894419?tool=bestpractice.com已报道了生殖支原体中使用大环内酯类和喹诺酮类治疗失败的两种可能因素:更高的细菌负荷和抗生素耐药机制的出现。[60]Walker J, Fairley CK, Bradshaw CS, et al. Mycoplasma genitalium incidence, organism load, and treatment failure in a cohort of young Australian women. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1094-1100.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23300236?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Couldwell DL, Tagg KA, Jeoffreys NJ, et al. Failure of moxifloxacin treatment in Mycoplasma genitalium infections due to macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance. Int J STD AIDS. 2013;24:822-828.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24052013?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,使用阿奇霉素、多西环素和莫西沙星治疗脲原体种失败的病例也有报告。在对其他抗生素耐药的生殖支原体病例中,克林霉素可能有效;人型支原体和脲原体种均对该药敏感。