治疗的总体目标是通过对伤口进行恰当处理,以防止发病和死亡;这包括感染并发症的预防和/或治疗。 对动物抓伤,如浅表牙齿刮伤,应视为咬伤处理,因为这类伤口也会沾染唾液。 但常见的浅表爪抓伤,如猫抓伤,则不需要作为咬伤处理。
伤口处理
所有动物咬伤均应视为污染性,需进行伤口护理。受累表皮应进行清洁,给予清水、生理盐水或乳酸林格液在高压(使用 18 或 19 号针或导管针和大注射器)下充分冲洗开放伤口。[22]Ellis R, Ellis C. Dog and cat bites. Am Fam Physician. 2014 Aug 15;90(4):239-43.https://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0815/p239.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25250997?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Evgeniou E, Markeson D, Iyer S, et al. The management of animal bites in the United kingdom. Eplasty. 2013 Jun 10;13:e27.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3681434/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23837110?tool=bestpractice.com 也可以考虑采用稀释的聚维酮碘溶液进行灌洗,特别是考虑动物携带狂犬病时。[1]Morgan M, Palmer J. Dog bites. BMJ. 2007 Feb 24;334(7590):413-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1804160/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17322257?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Rabies: medical care. June 2018 [internet publication].https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/medical_care/index.html 应清除失活或坏死组织,并对脓肿进行引流。
紧握拳伤口需要特殊护理。 应由手部专科医生对侵入滑膜、关节囊和骨骼内的伤口进行评估。 这些伤口可能介入得较深并且携带病原菌进入手部的深层组织和潜在腔隙中。 在所有情况下均建议使用抗生素进行预防。[25]Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15;59(2):e10-52.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/59/2/e10.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973422?tool=bestpractice.com
伤口缝合与修复
伤口是否缝合存在争议。普遍共识为已感染伤口和咬伤 24 小时以上的伤口,应保持敞开。有些医生建议,对受伤 8 小时以内的患者伤口进行冲洗和清创后,如果无可见感染迹象,则可考虑对伤口进行缝合。
对于具有较高并发症或感染风险的伤口(如四肢创伤),则应保持敞开。对于关乎外观的伤口(如面部伤口),通常由整形外科医生或其他专家进行一期缝合。[26]Xiaowei Z, Wei L, Xiaowei H, et al. Comparison of primary and delayed wound closure of dog-bite wounds. Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol. 2013;26(3):204-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23460356?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Rui-feng C, Li-song H, Ji-bo Z, et al. Emergency treatment on facial laceration of dog bite wounds with immediate primary closure: a prospective randomized trial study. BMC Emerg Med. 2013;13(suppl 1):S2.http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-227X/13/S1/S2http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23902527?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Paschos NK, Makris EA, Gantsos A, et al. Primary closure versus non-closure of dog bite wounds. A randomised controlled trial. Injury. 2014 Jan;45(1):237-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23916901?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Chen E, Hornig S, Shepherd SM, et al. Primary closure of mammalian bites. Acad Emerg Med. 2000 Feb;7(2):157-61.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10691074?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 上图:初始治疗缝合七天后,腿部咬伤破裂感染。 下图:18个月后形成的疤痕。MorganM,PalmerJ.BMJ2007;334:413doi:10.1136/bmj.39105.659919.BE [Citation ends].
如果伤口伴有骨折、贯通到关节腔、大量组织缺损或深层解剖结构破坏,或者属于严重的手部或头部咬伤,则需要进行整形或外科会诊。
未感染咬伤伤口应使用预防性抗生素
预防性抗生素的适应症尚不明确,其效果也不确定。[30]Callaham M. Prophylactic antibiotics in dog bite wounds: nipping at the heels of progress. Ann Emerg Med. 1994 Mar;23(3):577-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8135437?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Cummings P. Antibiotics to prevent infection in patients with dog bite wounds: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Ann Emerg Med. 1994 Mar;23(3):535-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8135429?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Jones N, Khoosal M. Infected dog and cat bites. N Engl J Med. 1999 Jun 10;340(23):1841.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10366325?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Mederios I, Saconato H. Antibiotic prophylaxis for mammalian bites. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(2):CD001738.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11406003?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Henton J, Jain A. Cochrane corner: antibiotic prophylaxis for mammalian bites (intervention review). J Hand Surg Eur Vol. 2012 Oct;37(8):804-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23042781?tool=bestpractice.com
对于所有存在紧握拳的外伤病例,建议预防性使用抗生素[25]Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2014 Jul 15;59(2):e10-52.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/59/2/e10.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24973422?tool=bestpractice.com 对于存在较高感染风险或者有严重感染并发症的患者,可考虑采用该措施。
伤口因素包括:[1]Morgan M, Palmer J. Dog bites. BMJ. 2007 Feb 24;334(7590):413-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1804160/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17322257?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Taplitz RA. Managing bite wounds. Postgrad Med. 2004 Aug;116(2):49-52, 55-6, 59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15323154?tool=bestpractice.com
手部、头部、颈部或生殖器部位咬伤
穿刺伤或挤压伤
深层结构损失或需要手术修复
严重人或猫咬伤或撕裂
伤口位于人工关节处或邻近人工关节
四肢血液循环系统和淋巴系统损伤。
患者因素包括:[1]Morgan M, Palmer J. Dog bites. BMJ. 2007 Feb 24;334(7590):413-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1804160/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17322257?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Taplitz RA. Managing bite wounds. Postgrad Med. 2004 Aug;116(2):49-52, 55-6, 59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15323154?tool=bestpractice.com
对于有单发非感染性动物咬伤,且对青霉素不过敏的患者,可考虑给予 β-内酰胺抗生素或头孢菌素治疗。若对青霉素过敏,可采用林可酰胺类抗生素、磺胺类药物、氟喹诺酮类药物或者四环素进行治疗。一般情况下,预防性治疗需要持续 5-7 天。[8]Taplitz RA. Managing bite wounds. Postgrad Med. 2004 Aug;116(2):49-52, 55-6, 59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15323154?tool=bestpractice.com
一处已感染咬伤的治疗
出现明显感染体征的患者需要接受抗生素治疗。对于单发、非复杂性、感染性咬伤,但感染病原体未知,且对青霉素不过敏的患者,应给予口服 β-内酰胺抗生素或头孢菌素治疗。如果患者对青霉素过敏,可采用林可酰胺类抗生素、磺胺类药物、氟喹诺酮类药物或四环素进行治疗。[8]Taplitz RA. Managing bite wounds. Postgrad Med. 2004 Aug;116(2):49-52, 55-6, 59.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15323154?tool=bestpractice.com 关于治疗时间无标准指南,但对于无并发症的感染,治疗持续时间通常为7~15天。
伴随并发症的咬伤治疗
对于存在以下情况的患者,建议收入院进行胃肠外治疗:
多处或严重咬伤
严重局部感染
全身感染的证据
关节或骨骼受累
存在严重潜在疾病或免疫受损。
关于治疗持续时间无标准指南,但对于有并发症的感染(包括骨髓炎),治疗持续时间通常为4~6周。
破伤风暴露后预防
对于传染性疾病(尤其是狂犬病和破伤风),应考虑暴露后预防治疗(post-exposure prophylaxis, PEP)。
对于未完成 3 剂破伤风疫苗基础接种,或免疫接种史未知或不确定的患者,需要接种含破伤风类毒素疫苗(推荐接种时间:处理创伤时使用单剂量破伤风类毒素/减毒白喉类毒素及无细胞百日咳疫苗 [Tdap],接种 Tdap 4 周以后接种破伤风类毒素/白喉类毒素疫苗 [Td],6-12 个月后再接种一剂 Td)以及被动注射破伤风免疫球蛋白。[35]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria with vaccines in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2018 Apr 27;67(2):1-44.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5919600/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com 应使用单独的注射器,将这两种药品注射到不同的解剖部位。
对于已完成3剂量初次破伤风疫苗接种以及已在过去5年内接种含破伤风类毒素疫苗的成人,可达到预防破伤风的目的,无需再接种含破伤风类毒素的疫苗。[35]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria with vaccines in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2018 Apr 27;67(2):1-44.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5919600/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com 如果距离上一次接种含破伤风类毒素疫苗已经过了 5 年以上,则应将接种单剂量 Td 或 Tdap 作为伤口管理的一部分。对于年龄≥11 岁且既往未接种过 Tdap 的人群,Tdap 比 Td 更受推荐。[35]Liang JL, Tiwari T, Moro P, et al. Prevention of pertussis, tetanus, and diphtheria with vaccines in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2018 Apr 27;67(2):1-44.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5919600/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29702631?tool=bestpractice.com
狂犬病暴露后预防
当地卫生部门、职业卫生和/或传染性疾病机构的援助可能有帮助。在美国某些地区,动物咬伤是需要上报的。[11]Manning SE, Rupprecht CE, Fishbein D, et al. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Human rabies prevention - United States, 2008: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008 May 23;57(RR-3):1-28.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5703a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18496505?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Ellis R, Ellis C. Dog and cat bites. Am Fam Physician. 2014 Aug 15;90(4):239-43.https://www.aafp.org/afp/2014/0815/p239.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25250997?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chapter 3: rabies. May 2017 [internet publication].https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2018/infectious-diseases-related-to-travel/rabies
PEP 包括在清洁和消毒伤口后,接种有效的狂犬病疫苗和给予狂犬病免疫球蛋白(对于未接种疫苗的患者)。对有明确或疑似暴露史的无症状患者,无论距离病毒暴露多久,PEP 均非常有效。然而,不应对有症状的患者进行 PEP。[11]Manning SE, Rupprecht CE, Fishbein D, et al. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Human rabies prevention - United States, 2008: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008 May 23;57(RR-3):1-28.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5703a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18496505?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Rupprecht CE, Briggs D, Brown CM, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of a reduced (4-dose) vaccine schedule for postexposure prophylaxis to prevent human rabies: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010 Mar 19;59(RR-2):1-9.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5902a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20300058?tool=bestpractice.com
在美国,免疫接种咨询委员会(ACIP)将暴露风险定义为咬伤或非咬伤。[37]Rupprecht CE, Briggs D, Brown CM, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of a reduced (4-dose) vaccine schedule for postexposure prophylaxis to prevent human rabies: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010 Mar 19;59(RR-2):1-9.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5902a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20300058?tool=bestpractice.com
世界卫生组织 (WHO) 将狂犬病暴露分为 3 类:[18]World Health Organization. Weekly epidemiological record. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper. April 2018 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272371/WER9316.pdf?ua=1
I 类:接触或喂养动物、完好皮肤被舔(若既往史可靠,则无感染风险)
II 类:裸露的皮肤被轻咬或者轻微抓伤,或擦伤但无出血(感染风险低)
III 类:单处或多处穿透皮肤的咬伤或抓伤、破损皮肤被舔、黏膜被动物的唾液污染,或者暴露于蝙蝠咬伤(感染高危)。
只推荐将 PEP 用于 WHO II 类或 III 类暴露。
是否采用 PEP 方案取决于患者是否曾接种过狂犬病疫苗。暴露前狂犬病疫苗接种仅用于狂犬病感染高风险人群。
如果使用的是疫苗和纯化狂犬病免疫球蛋白,则 PEP 没有任何禁忌证。推荐将 PEP 用于儿童和孕妇。
未接种疫苗的患者
对于有明确或疑似接触史,且未接种疫苗的无症状患者,需要进行 PEP,包括以下步骤:[11]Manning SE, Rupprecht CE, Fishbein D, et al. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Human rabies prevention - United States, 2008: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008 May 23;57(RR-3):1-28.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5703a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18496505?tool=bestpractice.com[18]World Health Organization. Weekly epidemiological record. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper. April 2018 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272371/WER9316.pdf?ua=1[37]Rupprecht CE, Briggs D, Brown CM, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of a reduced (4-dose) vaccine schedule for postexposure prophylaxis to prevent human rabies: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010 Mar 19;59(RR-2):1-9.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5902a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20300058?tool=bestpractice.com
已接受免疫接种的患者
对于有明确或可疑接触史的既往免疫接种患者,建议使用经过改良的狂犬病疫苗接种方案(已证实有足够的狂犬病病毒中和抗体应答):[11]Manning SE, Rupprecht CE, Fishbein D, et al. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Human rabies prevention - United States, 2008: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008 May 23;57(RR-3):1-28.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5703a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18496505?tool=bestpractice.com[18]World Health Organization. Weekly epidemiological record. Rabies vaccines: WHO position paper. April 2018 [internet publication].http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272371/WER9316.pdf?ua=1[37]Rupprecht CE, Briggs D, Brown CM, et al; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Use of a reduced (4-dose) vaccine schedule for postexposure prophylaxis to prevent human rabies: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010 Mar 19;59(RR-2):1-9.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5902a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20300058?tool=bestpractice.com
对于既往接种过疫苗的人,不建议使用狂犬病免疫球蛋白。
公共卫生/执法机关通知
如被咬伤,可能需要联系当地执法和/或公共卫生机构。 各地的惯例和规定不同。 这类机构可协助动物咬伤调查、咬伤后狂犬病检疫、识别和管理野生动物以及出具公共卫生报告。[11]Manning SE, Rupprecht CE, Fishbein D, et al. Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Human rabies prevention - United States, 2008: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2008 May 23;57(RR-3):1-28.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5703a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18496505?tool=bestpractice.com