感染是主要的诱发因素,有 30% 到 60% 的患者发生。 尿道感染和肺炎是报告的最常见感染病例。[2]Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, et al. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009 Jul;32(7):1335-43.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/32/7/1335.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19564476?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Trence DL, Hirsch IB. Hyperglycemic crises in diabetes mellitus type 2. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2001 Dec;30(4):817-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11727401?tool=bestpractice.com
在许多情况下,该病的触发因素是能引起反调节激素(儿茶酚胺、胰高血糖素、皮质醇和生长激素)释放和/或影响水摄入的急性疾病(例如卒中、心肌梗死 [MI] 或内外科疾病)或者创伤。[1]Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, et al. Management of hyperglycemic crises in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2001 Jan;24(1):131-53.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/24/1/131.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11194218?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, et al. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009 Jul;32(7):1335-43.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/32/7/1335.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19564476?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, et al. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes: a consensus statement from the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2006 Dec;29(12):2739-48.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/29/12/2739.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17130218?tool=bestpractice.com 在老年患者中,卧床不起和口渴反应改变会影响饮水和水摄入,导致严重的脱水和高渗性高血糖状态 (HHS)。[16]Pasquel FJ, Umpierrez GE. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state: a historic review of the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment. Diabetes Care. 2014 Nov;37(11):3124-31.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/37/11/3124.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25342831?tool=bestpractice.com HHS 可见于有糖尿病病史的术后患者,尤其是经历心脏搭桥手术或者神经外科手术后。[8]Trence DL, Hirsch IB. Hyperglycemic crises in diabetes mellitus type 2. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2001 Dec;30(4):817-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11727401?tool=bestpractice.com
前期糖尿病或者糖尿病患者中,术后需要全胃肠外营养且没有开始合适的胰岛素治疗的这类患者也可能出现 HHS。[8]Trence DL, Hirsch IB. Hyperglycemic crises in diabetes mellitus type 2. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2001 Dec;30(4):817-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11727401?tool=bestpractice.com 有明确糖尿病家族史的患者在进行全胃肠外营养 (TPN) 治疗且未同时进行胰岛素治疗时形成 HHS 的风险也很高。[8]Trence DL, Hirsch IB. Hyperglycemic crises in diabetes mellitus type 2. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2001 Dec;30(4):817-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11727401?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Sypniewski E Jr, Mirtallo JM, Schneider PJ. Hyperosmolar, hyperglycemic, nonketotic coma in a patient receiving home total parenteral nutrient therapy. Clin Pharm. 1987 Jan;6(1):69-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3102154?tool=bestpractice.com
罕见情况下,内分泌紊乱(例如甲状腺功能亢进、[8]Trence DL, Hirsch IB. Hyperglycemic crises in diabetes mellitus type 2. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2001 Dec;30(4):817-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11727401?tool=bestpractice.com 肢端肥大症)[18]Kopff B, Mucha S, Wolffenbuttel BH, et al. Diabetic ketoacidosis in a patient with acromegaly. Med Sci Monit. 2001 Jan-Feb;7(1):142-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11208511?tool=bestpractice.com 能导致 HHS。在合并糖尿病的患者中,皮质醇增多症能导致胰岛素抵抗,并促使发生 HHS。[19]Gooch BR. Cushing's syndrome manifesting as pseudo-central hypothyroidism and hyperosmolar diabetic coma. Endocr Pract. 2002 Mar-Apr;8(2):119-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11942777?tool=bestpractice.com 异位生成的促肾上腺皮质激素与 HHS 相关。[20]Shirahige Y, Watanabe T, Oki Y, et al. A case of cervical carcinoma of the uterus presenting with hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma as a manifestation of ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone syndrome. Jpn J Cancer Res. 1991 Jun;82(6):710-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1649812?tool=bestpractice.com 在没有调整胰岛素剂量或者口服降糖药时开始皮质类固醇治疗可能诱发 HHS。
在因 HHS 住院的患者中,有 12% 到 25% 的患者未遵循胰岛素或者口服降糖药治疗方案。[5]Wachtel TJ, Tetu-Mouradjian LM, Goldman DL, et al. Hyperosmolarity and acidosis in diabetes mellitus: a three-year experience in Rhode Island. J Gen Intern Med. 1991 Nov-Dec;6(6):495-502.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1765864?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Lorber D. Nonketotic hypertonicity in diabetes mellitus. Med Clin North Am. 1995 Jan;79(1):39-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7808094?tool=bestpractice.com 在美国,该相关性在居住于城市的非裔美国人糖尿患者中强得多,在这些患者中,42% 病例的 HHS 是由不依从治疗这一单一原因导致的。[9]Umpierrez GE, Kelly JP, Navarrete JE, et al. Hyperglycemic crises in urban Blacks. Arch Intern Med. 1997 Mar 24;157(6):669-75.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9080921?tool=bestpractice.com 在这些患者中,酗酒和吸毒是他们不遵守糖尿病治疗的主要因素。
皮质类固醇、[21]Alavi IA, Sharma BK, Pillay VK. Steroid-induced diabetic ketoacidosis. Am J Med Sci. 1971 Jul;262(1):15-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4327634?tool=bestpractice.com 噻嗪类利尿剂、[22]Nardone DA, Bouma DJ. Hyperglycemia and diabetic coma: possible relationship to diuretic-propranolol therapy. South Med J. 1979 Dec;72(12):1607-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/515777?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Diamond MT. Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar coma associated with hydrochlorothiazide and pancreatitis. N Y State J Med. 1972 Jul 1;72(13):1741-2.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4504065?tool=bestpractice.com β 受体阻滞剂、[24]Podolsky S, Pattavina CG. Hyperosmolar nonketotic diabetic coma: a complication of propranolol therapy. Metabolism. 1973 May;22(5):685-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4145086?tool=bestpractice.com 和去羟肌苷[25]Munshi MN, Martin RE, Fonseca VA. Hyperosmolar nonketotic diabetic syndrome following treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection with didanosine. Diabetes Care. 1994 Apr;17(4):316-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8026288?tool=bestpractice.com 都与 HHS 相关。一般认为这些药物通过影响碳水化合物的代谢诱发 HHS。[7]Umpierrez GE, Smiley DD. Complications. In: Fonseca V, ed. Clinical diabetes. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2006:101-8. 与高血糖症相关但与 HHS 不相关的药物包括苯妥英、[26]Carter BL, Small RE, Mandel MD, et al. Phenytoin-induced hyperglycemia. Am J Hosp Pharm. 1981 Oct;38(10):1508-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7294047?tool=bestpractice.com 加替沙星、[27]Yadav V, Deopujari K. Gatifloxacin and dysglycemia in older adults. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jun 22;354(25):2725-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16795151?tool=bestpractice.com 西咪替丁。[28]Reddy J. Hyperglycemia and renal failure related to the use of cimetidine. N Z Med J. 1981 May 27;93(684):354-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6942301?tool=bestpractice.com HIV 临床患者中发现药物诱导的高血糖病例逐渐升高;最常见的所涉及药物是甲地孕酮、戊烷脒和皮质类固醇。[29]Kilby JM, Tabereaux PB. Severe hyperglycemia in an HIV clinic: preexisting versus drug-associated diabetes mellitus. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998 Jan 1;17(1):46-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9436758?tool=bestpractice.com 当联合使用这些药物时,患上严重高血糖症的风险增加。[30]Gambini D, Brambilla AM, Galli C, et al. Increased hyperglycemia during cotreatment with pentamidine and corticosteroids in AIDS patients. AIDS. 1997 Nov;11(13):1652-3.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9365773?tool=bestpractice.com 非典型抗精神病药(尤其是氯氮平和奥氮平)也可能诱发糖尿病和高血糖危象。[31]Newcomer JW. Second generation (atypical) antipsychotics and metabolic effects: a comprehensive literature review. CNS Drugs. 2005;19(suppl 1):1-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15998156?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Wilson DR, D'Souza L, Sarkar N, et al. New-onset diabetes and ketoacidosis with atypical antipsychotics. Schizophr Res. 2003 Jan 1;59(1):1-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12413635?tool=bestpractice.com
大约 7% 到 17 % 的患者新近确诊为糖尿病。[9]Umpierrez GE, Kelly JP, Navarrete JE, et al. Hyperglycemic crises in urban Blacks. Arch Intern Med. 1997 Mar 24;157(6):669-75.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9080921?tool=bestpractice.com