在开始进行静脉血栓栓塞预防治疗前,应评估所有患者的静脉血栓栓塞的风险,同时也应该考虑到出血的风险以及血栓栓塞预防的药物禁忌证。静脉血栓栓塞的预防是采用药物或者非药物治疗措施消减深静脉血栓形成和肺栓塞的风险。
对内科或外科手术患者采用药物预防血栓治疗被认为是有效且安全的。[57]Samama MM, Cohen AT, Darmon JY, et al; Prophylaxis in Medical Patients with Enoxaparin Study Group. A comparison of enoxaparin with placebo for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 9;341(11):793-800.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199909093411103http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10477777?tool=bestpractice.com 与安慰剂相比,采用普通肝素,低分子肝素或磺达肝素对手术患者预防血栓治疗能够减少至少60%有症状和无症状的静脉血栓栓塞。[66]Collins R, Scrimgeour A, Yusuf S, et al. Reduction in fatal pulmonary embolism and venous thrombosis by perioperative administration of subcutaneous heparin: overview of results of randomized trials in general, orthopedic, and urologic surgery. N Engl J Med. 1988 May 5;318(18):1162-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3283548?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Clagett GP, Reisch JS. Prevention of venous thromboembolism in general surgical patients: results of meta-analysis. Ann Surg. 1988 Aug;208(2):227-40.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1493611/pdf/annsurg00186-0127.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2456748?tool=bestpractice.com
将临床指南的现有知识应用于临床实践是一个严峻挑战。总体来说,仅有 40%~50% 的内科住院患者接受了充分的血栓预防治疗。坚持应用指南的比例在外科患者的治疗中较高,但仍旧有限。[68]Cohen AT, Tapson VF, Bergmann JF, et al. Venous thromboembolism risk and prophylaxis in the acute hospital care setting (ENDORSE study): a multinational cross-sectional study. Lancet. 2008 Feb 2;371(9610):387-94. [Erratum in: Lancet. 2008 Jun 7;371(9628):1914.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18242412?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Kucher N, Spirk D, Kalka C, et al. Clinical predictors of prophylaxis use prior to the onset of acute venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients SWIss Venous ThromboEmbolism Registry (SWIVTER). J Thromb Haemost. 2008 Dec;6(12):2082-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18983519?tool=bestpractice.com 各个医院制订血栓预防治疗指南并指导临床医师是非常值得推荐的。另外,内科医师通过基于计算机的决策系统和预先印制的医嘱,可以在对每个患者进行决策时,最有效地遵从血栓治疗指南。[70]Tooher R, Middleton P, Pham C, et al. A systematic review of strategies to improve prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in hospitals. Ann Surg. 2005 Mar;241(3):397-415.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1356978/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15729062?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Mosen D, Elliott CG, Egger MJ, et al. The effect of a computerized reminder system on the prevention of postoperative venous thromboembolism. Chest. 2004 May;125(5):1635-41.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15136370?tool=bestpractice.com 药剂师或其他健康卫生人员定期审计可加强静脉血栓栓塞预防。[72]Abdel-Razeq H. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis for hospitalized medical patients, current status and strategies to improve. Ann Thorac Med. 2010 Oct;5(4):195-200.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20981179?tool=bestpractice.com 直接口服抗凝剂,包括直接凝血酶抑制剂(如达比加群)和直接因子 Xa 抑制剂(如利伐沙班和阿哌沙班),已经被批准用于髋关节和膝关节置换术后的静脉血栓栓塞预防。在美国,达比加群仅被批准用于在进行髋关节置换术后对深静脉血栓形成和肺栓塞的预防。如果在其他住院患者群体中,血栓预防研究结果显示这些药物安全有效,则此类药物的依从性可能会有所提高。[73]Turpie AG, Lassen MR, Davidson BL, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after total knee arthroplasty (RECORD4): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2009 May 16;373(9676):1673-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19411100?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Salazar CA, Malaga G, Malasquez G. Direct thrombin inhibitors versus vitamin K antagonists or low molecular weight heparins for prevention of venous thromboembolism following total hip or knee replacement. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010 Apr 14;(4):CD005981.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005981.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20393944?tool=bestpractice.com[75]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Rivaroxaban for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip or total knee replacement in adults. Apr 2009 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA170[76]Melillo SN, Scanlon JV, Exter BP, et al. Rivaroxaban for thromboprophylaxis in patients undergoing major orthopedic surgery. Ann Pharmacother. 2010 Jun;44(6):1061-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20424181?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Lalonde L, Martineau J, Blais N, et al. Is long-term pharmacist-managed anticoagulation service efficient? A pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Am Heart J. 2008 Jul;156(1):148-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18585510?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Kakkar AK, Brenner B, Dahl OE, et al; RECORD2 Investigators. Extended duration rivaroxaban versus short-term enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip arthroplasty: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2008 Jul 5;372(9632):31-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18582928?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Hull RD, Yusen RD, Bergqvist D. State-of-the-art review: assessing the safety profiles of new anticoagulants for major orthopedic surgery thromboprophylaxis. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2009 Jul-Aug;15(4):377-88.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19608549?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Eriksson BI, Borris LC, Friedman RJ, et al; RECORD1 Study Group. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after hip arthroplasty. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jun 26;358(26):2765-75.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0800374http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18579811?tool=bestpractice.com 值得注意的是,一项多中心双盲随机对照临床试验 (EPCAT II) 显示,在预防髋关节或膝关节置换术后深静脉血栓形成方面,使用利伐沙班(共 5 天)后换为阿司匹林治疗的患者,其血栓预防效果并不劣于全程只接受利伐沙班的患者。[81]Anderson DR, Dunbar M, Murnaghan J, et al. Aspirin or rivaroxaban for VTE prophylaxis after hip or knee arthroplasty. N Engl J Med. 2018 Feb 22;378(8):699-707.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29466159?tool=bestpractice.com 通过类似加拿大更安全卫生护理 (Safer Health Care Now) 网站等的互联网信息传播[82]Canadian Patient Safety Institute. Safer healthcare now! 2016 [internet publication].http://www.patientsafetyinstitute.ca/en/About/Programs/SHN/Pages/default.aspx 也有助于提升在全球范围内对于医院内静脉血栓栓塞重要性的关注。[83]Mahan CE, Spyropoulos AC. Venous thromboembolism prevention: a systematic review of methods to improve prophylaxis and decrease events in the hospitalized patient. Hosp Pract (1995). 2010 Feb;38(1):97-108.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20469630?tool=bestpractice.com
血栓预防治疗的方法(药物预防和非药物预防)
药物预防治疗应考虑成为静脉血栓栓塞预防的主要方式,同时应早期下床活动。 未来一段时间会有3类药物获得批准:普通肝素(UFH)、低分子肝素(LMWH)和选择性抗 Xa因子抑制剂磺达肝素。 [
]How does fondaparinux compare with low molecular weight heparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.2036/full显示答案 华法林是可作为替代的合理药物,但需要频繁检测。单独使用阿司匹林作为血栓预防治疗也存在争议。[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com 在全髋关节置换术后28天内联合使用阿司匹林进行血栓预防治疗的效果和安全性并不次于最初10天使用达肝素钠来预防静脉血栓栓塞。[84]Anderson DR, Dunbar MJ, Bohm ER, et al. Aspirin versus low-molecular-weight heparin for extended venous thromboembolism prophylaxis after total hip arthroplasty: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2013 Jun 4;158(11):800-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23732713?tool=bestpractice.com
其他的口服药物,例如直接凝血酶抑制剂(达比加群)和抗 Xa 因子抑制剂(利伐沙班、阿哌沙班)已被批准用于髋关节和膝关节置换术后的血栓预防,但未批准用于髋部骨折手术。在美国,达比加群仅被批准用于在进行髋关节置换术后对深静脉血栓形成和肺栓塞的预防。与华法林不同的是,口服抗 Xa 因子抑制剂和直接凝血酶抑制剂在作为预防用药时不需要对其进行监测。美国胸科医师学会 (ACCP) 指南和英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所 (NICE) 指南推荐,在行选择性髋关节和膝关节置换术后,使用利伐沙班、达比加群和阿哌沙班降低静脉血栓栓塞的风险。[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com[75]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Rivaroxaban for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip or total knee replacement in adults. Apr 2009 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA170[85]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Dabigatran etexilate for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after hip or knee replacement surgery in adults. Sept 2008 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA157[86]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Apixaban for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip or knee replacement in adults. Jan 2012 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA245 达比加群不能用于有人工机械瓣膜患者的预防或治疗。[87]Eikelboom JW, Connolly SJ, Brueckmann M, et al; the RE-ALIGN Investigators. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with mechanical heart valves. N Engl J Med. 2013 Sep 26;369(13):1206-14.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23991661?tool=bestpractice.com 也有采用利伐沙班和阿哌沙班对内科患者的血栓预防治疗。 MAGELLAN的Ⅲ期临床研究显示,采用利伐沙班治疗内科患者的主要效力终点并不劣于依诺肝素,但出血的情况增多。[88]Cohen AT, Spiro TE, Büller HR, et al; MAGELLAN Investigators. Rivaroxaban for thromboprophylaxis in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med. 2013 Feb 7;368(6):513-23.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1111096http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23388003?tool=bestpractice.com ADOPT的研究发现与依诺肝素相比,内科患者使用阿哌沙班发生出血也是一个问题。[89]Goldhaber SZ, Leizorovicz A, Kakkar AK, et al; ADOPT Trial Investigators. Apixaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis in medically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2011 Dec 8;365(23):2167-77.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110899http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22077144?tool=bestpractice.com
直接口服抗凝药物的其他特征包括阿哌沙班的剂量为每日两次,而达比加群和利伐沙班的剂量为每日一次。不推荐 CrCl<30 mL/分的患者使用达比加群,特别是与 P-糖蛋白抑制剂联合用药时。也不推荐 CrCl<30 mL/分的患者使用利伐沙班。对 CrCl<30 mL/分的患者采用阿哌沙班时要谨慎。所有直接口服抗凝药物都应按照各个产品专论中的说明在术后开始使用。低分子肝素可以术前或术后使用,但研究者建议低分子肝素在术后开始使用,因为考虑到引起关节出血的风险。
非药物治疗方法包括分级压力袜和间歇气压治疗设备。间歇气压治疗设备较安慰剂能明显减少深静脉血栓的发生率,但有效性低于药物治疗,后者在血栓预防治疗上有一定效果。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Sachdeva A, Dalton M, Amaragiri SV, et al. Graduated compression stockings for prevention of deep vein thrombosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014 Dec 17;(12):CD001484.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001484.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25517473?tool=bestpractice.com[91]Dennis M, Sandercock PA, Reid J, et al; CLOTS Trials Collaboration. Effectiveness of thigh-length graduated compression stockings to reduce the risk of deep vein thrombosis after stroke (CLOTS trial 1): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009 Jun 6;373(9679):1958-65.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2692021/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19477503?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Pour AE, Keshavarzi NR, Purtill JJ, et al. Is venous foot pump effective in prevention of thromboembolic disease after joint arthroplasty: a meta-analysis. J Arthroplasty. 2013 Mar;28(3):410-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23102505?tool=bestpractice.com 因此,除非存在药物禁忌证,否则这些设备应与药物血栓预防同时使用。一旦禁忌证消除,患者应接受药物预防治疗。间歇充气加压(IPC)装置也可加入特定高危患者的药物治疗方案中,例如接受大手术的癌症患者。压力袜的应用明显受限是因为早期会妨碍活动,因此依从性是个问题。但是移动气压装置显示出有益的结果,因为这种装置使患者走动时很舒适并且能够记录使用的时间。[93]Hardwick ME, Pulido PA, Colwell CW Jr. A mobile compression device compared with low-molecular-weight heparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism in total hip arthroplasty. Orthop Nurs. 2011 Sep-Oct;30(5):312-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21934585?tool=bestpractice.com 基于循序加压弹力袜在内科患者和卒中患者中的使用数据,新的建议是不再推荐使用此装置,因其并未带来获益且能够引起严重皮肤损伤。[94]Qaseem A, Chou R, Humphrey LL, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in hospitalized patients: a clinical practice guideline from the American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Nov 1;155(9):625-32.http://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/1033137/venous-thromboembolism-prophylaxis-hospitalized-patients-clinical-practice-guideline-from-americanhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22041951?tool=bestpractice.com[95]Dennis M, Caso V, Kappelle LJ, et al. European Stroke Organization guidelines for prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in immobile patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Eur Stroke J. 2016 Mar;1(1):6-19.http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2396987316628384 [
]In people with stroke, what are the effects of physical methods for preventing deep vein thrombosis and other complications?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.289/full显示答案
内科患者
建议对大多数住院的内科患者进行血栓预防治疗,除非患者发生静脉血栓栓塞的风险很低。目前建议采用风险评估模型对患者发生静脉血栓栓塞的基础风险进行评估。其中由一个美国胸内科医师协会推荐的风险评估模型是Padua预测评分。[50]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e195S-226S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60124-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com 对内科住院患者进行静脉血栓栓塞风险评估很重要,依此才能给予合适的血栓预防治疗。
如果患者因肺部或心血管疾病、感染、风湿或者炎症入院并且由于内科疾病无法活动,同时存在一项或多项其他静脉血栓栓塞风险因素,则建议使用普通肝素、低分子肝素或磺达肝素直到患者完全恢复活动或出院。[50]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e195S-226S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60124-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com 对于内科患者预防血栓的治疗,利伐沙班的效果并不优于依诺肝素,但出血风险显著增加。[88]Cohen AT, Spiro TE, Büller HR, et al; MAGELLAN Investigators. Rivaroxaban for thromboprophylaxis in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med. 2013 Feb 7;368(6):513-23.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1111096http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23388003?tool=bestpractice.com 一项研究对比了阿哌沙班和依诺肝素在内科患者中的疗效,[89]Goldhaber SZ, Leizorovicz A, Kakkar AK, et al; ADOPT Trial Investigators. Apixaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis in medically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2011 Dec 8;365(23):2167-77.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1110899http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22077144?tool=bestpractice.com 结果发现,长期(30 天)使用阿哌沙班并未显示出优于短期使用依诺肝素的疗效,且还会导致严重的出血。因此目前不推荐对出院后的内科患者或对不能活动的患者延长血栓预防治疗的时间。[50]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e195S-226S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60124-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com[96]Lederle FA, Zylla D, MacDonald R, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in hospitalized medical patients and those with stroke: a background review for an American College of Physicians Clinical Practice Guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2011 Nov 1;155(9):602-15.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22041949?tool=bestpractice.com 某些特定内科患者人群,例如急性疾病导致活动障碍的患者,可能延长血栓预防治疗时间有益,但需要进一步研究。[97]Hull RD, Schellong SM, Tapson VF, et al; EXCLAIM (Extended Prophylaxis for Venous ThromboEmbolism in Acutely Ill Medical Patients With Prolonged Immobilization) study. Extended-duration venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in acutely ill medical patients with recently reduced mobility: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2010 Jul 6;153(1):8-18.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20621900?tool=bestpractice.com[98]Sharma A, Chatterjee S, Lichstein E, et al. Extended thromboprophylaxis for medically ill patients with decreased mobility: does it improve outcomes? J Thromb Haemost. 2012 Oct;10(10):2053-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22863355?tool=bestpractice.com
内科患者[ICU、肿瘤(非卧床)]
大多数重症患者都建议采用普通肝素或低分子肝素预防血栓治疗。目前没有明确显示哪一种药物更有效或者引起出血。[99]Cook D, Meade M, Guyatt G, et al; PROTECT Investigators for the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group and the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group. Dalteparin versus unfractionated heparin in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2011 Apr 7;364(14):1305-14.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1014475http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21417952?tool=bestpractice.com 在PROTECE研究中,有3675个危重患者随机采用达肝素钠和普通肝素进行预防血栓的对比研究,结果发现达肝素钠在预防血栓作用中并不优于普通肝素。[99]Cook D, Meade M, Guyatt G, et al; PROTECT Investigators for the Canadian Critical Care Trials Group and the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group. Dalteparin versus unfractionated heparin in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2011 Apr 7;364(14):1305-14.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1014475http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21417952?tool=bestpractice.com 目前关于这类人群使用磺达肝素或直接口服抗凝药物的结果暂无相关数据。
住院的肿瘤患者如果无法活动应该接受低分子肝素、普通肝素或磺达肝素的预防血栓治疗。[50]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e195S-226S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60124-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com 美国临床肿瘤协会和欧洲肿瘤内科协会建议对住院的癌症患者预防性使用低分子肝素、普通肝素或磺达肝素。[60]Mandalà M, Falanga A, Roila F; ESMO Guidelines Working Group. Management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines. Ann Oncol. 2011 Sep;22 Suppl 6:vi85-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21908511?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Lyman GH, Bohlke K, Khorana AA, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update 2014. J Clin Oncol. 2015 Feb 20;33(6):654-6.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2014.59.7351http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25605844?tool=bestpractice.com
目前对接受化疗药物的癌症患者尚无统一的血栓预防治疗意见,而总体而言不建议大范围地使用血栓预防治疗。[50]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e195S-226S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60124-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Mandalà M, Falanga A, Roila F; ESMO Guidelines Working Group. Management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines. Ann Oncol. 2011 Sep;22 Suppl 6:vi85-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21908511?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Lyman GH, Bohlke K, Khorana AA, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update 2014. J Clin Oncol. 2015 Feb 20;33(6):654-6.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2014.59.7351http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25605844?tool=bestpractice.com[100]National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: cancer-associated venous thromboembolic disease. 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/default.aspx#supportive 这是因为尽管低分子肝素临床试验的结果很乐观,安全问题以及患者所关注的问题仍旧存在。[58]Di Nisio M, Porreca E, Candeloro M, et al. Primary prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in ambulatory cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Dec 1;(12):CD008500.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008500.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27906452?tool=bestpractice.com 利用 Khorana 评分在计算机上建立预测模型已经在一项前瞻性试验中得到验证,可以帮助评估癌症患者中的静脉血栓栓塞风险。[101]Lustig DB, Rodriguez R, Wells PS. Implementation and validation of a risk stratification method at the Ottawa Hospital to guide thromboprophylaxis in ambulatory cancer patients at intermediate-high risk for venous thrombosis. Thromb Res. 2015 Dec;136(6):1099-102.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26260645?tool=bestpractice.com 值得注意的是接受沙利度胺或来那度胺等化疗药物或地塞米松的治疗的患者,有发生静脉血栓高危因素。因此美国临床肿瘤协会建议对接受沙利度胺或来那度胺的多发骨髓瘤患者予以预防性低分子肝素或低剂量阿司匹林治疗。[61]Lyman GH, Bohlke K, Khorana AA, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update 2014. J Clin Oncol. 2015 Feb 20;33(6):654-6.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2014.59.7351http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25605844?tool=bestpractice.com
国际骨髓瘤工作小组和国家综合癌症网建议对仅有一个静脉血栓栓塞危险因素的低风险骨髓瘤患者使用阿司匹林,而对2个或以上危险因素的高危患者使用低分子肝素或华法林治疗。[25]Palumbo A, Rajkumar SV, Dimopoulos MA, et al. Prevention of thalidomide- and lenalidomide-associated thrombosis in myeloma. Leukemia. 2008 Feb;22(2):414-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18094721?tool=bestpractice.com[100]National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: cancer-associated venous thromboembolic disease. 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/default.aspx#supportive 欧洲肿瘤内科协会不建议对接受化疗药物的晚期癌症患者预防性用药,但建议对服用沙利度胺联合地塞米松或沙利度胺联合化疗药物的骨髓瘤患者使用低分子肝素、阿司匹林或经调整剂量的华法林(INR~1.5)。[60]Mandalà M, Falanga A, Roila F; ESMO Guidelines Working Group. Management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines. Ann Oncol. 2011 Sep;22 Suppl 6:vi85-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21908511?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,一项系统评价发现,对于接受来那度胺联合高剂量地塞米松的多发性骨髓瘤患者,阿司匹林可能不足以实现血栓预防。[102]Al-Ani F, Bermejo JM, Mateos MV, et al. Thromboprophylaxis in multiple myeloma patients treated with lenalidomide - a systematic review. Thromb Res. 2016 May;141:84-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26986753?tool=bestpractice.com
最后,2012美国胸内科医师协会指南建议对有实体肿瘤的、存在静脉血栓栓塞额外危险因素同时出血风险低的门诊患者预防性使用低分子肝素或低剂量普通肝素。这些额外危险因素包括既往有静脉血栓栓塞病史、活动障碍、激素替代治疗、血管生成抑制剂以及沙利度胺或来那度胺治疗。[50]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e195S-226S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60124-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com 这些建议的依据都很弱,并需要进一步研究明确这些问题。
不建议对导管置入患者进行预防血栓的治疗。[50]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e195S-226S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60124-X/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Mandalà M, Falanga A, Roila F; ESMO Guidelines Working Group. Management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in cancer patients: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines. Ann Oncol. 2011 Sep;22 Suppl 6:vi85-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21908511?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Lyman GH, Bohlke K, Khorana AA, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update 2014. J Clin Oncol. 2015 Feb 20;33(6):654-6.http://ascopubs.org/doi/full/10.1200/JCO.2014.59.7351http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25605844?tool=bestpractice.com[100]National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: cancer-associated venous thromboembolic disease. 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/default.aspx#supportive
外科手术患者
美国胸内科医师协会建议对外科手术患者的基础危险因素评估采用2种危险因素评估模型,即考虑到患者自身以及与手术操作有关的危险因素。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 第一个危险评估模型是Rogers评分,它将患者发生静脉血栓栓塞的风险分为极低(小于7分),低(7-10分)以及中度风险(>10分)。由于Rogers评分显得有些繁琐并且未经过外部验证,因此美国胸内科医师协会也建议采用一种相对简单的评分模型即Caprini评分,这一模型已在普外科、血管科以及泌尿外科的患者中经过验证。 Caprini评分将患者分层为极低(0分),低(1-2分),中等(2-3分)或高风险(≥5分)。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com
普通外科、妇科、泌尿外科、胃肠外科以及血管外科:
在普外科手术、妇科手术、泌尿外科、胃肠以及血管外科中,如果患者发生静脉血栓的风险较低(Caprini评分1-2分或Rogers评分7-10分),则不建议采用药物预防血栓,但建议采用物理治疗(推荐间歇气压治疗)进行预防。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 在共识指南中,循序加压弹力袜 (GCS) 一般推荐用于低风险患者。[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com 但是对高危险患者(经过大手术或有额外危险因素)建议采用普通肝素或低分子肝素联合物理治疗预防血栓。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 值得注意的是,2018 英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所 (NICE) 指南推荐,对于进行腹部手术的患者,若其静脉血栓栓塞风险超过其出血风险,则加用至少 7 天的低分子肝素或磺达肝癸钠。若患者禁忌使用低分子肝素,则可用磺达肝癸钠。[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89 对于高危险的肿瘤外科患者,应考虑延长低分子肝素或普通肝素在术后的预防时间至长达4周,同时增加间歇气压治疗或分级压力袜。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com
胸外科和心外科:
胸外科手术或心脏手术应常规进行血栓预防治疗。推荐对接受胸外科手术的患者使用机械性预防治疗(弹力袜或间歇充气加压),且应在入院时即开始,并在患者可走动后停止治疗。[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89 一般认为大多数接受心脏手术(包括冠状动脉旁路移植术 [CABG])的患者都存在静脉血栓栓塞的中度风险以及大出血的高危风险。2012 美国胸科医师协会指南推荐对术后无并发症的患者使用机械预防治疗,同时建议对合并 1 个或多个非出血性手术并发症、并导致住院时间延长的患者加入普通肝素或低分子肝素的治疗。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 2018 NICE 指南也效仿推荐将低分子肝素加入机械预防治疗方案中,作为一线药物预防治疗,且若存在低分子肝素禁忌证,可使用磺达肝癸钠作为替代。[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89
神经外科:
接受神经外科手术的患者(如脑膜瘤切除)是一类特殊人群,因为存在出血以及潜在出血后遗症的风险。在神经外科手术中建议常规采用间歇气压疗法进行血栓预防治疗。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com 对于有较低出血风险的患者,若无禁忌证,应在使用间歇充气加压(IPC)装置的基础上加入普通肝素或低分子肝素治疗。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com
外伤、骨科手术患者以及急性脊髓损伤的患者都属于高危人群。外伤患者如果没有禁忌证应该常规接受低分子肝素、普通肝素和/或物理治疗(推荐间歇气压疗法)至出院。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com 急性脊髓损伤手术应在术后开始预防性使用低分子肝素或普通肝素,并持续3个月或直到患者完全下床活动。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 在这两个高风险组中,如果禁忌使用药物预防治疗或与 UFH 或 LMWH 联合使用能带来益处,则使用 IPC 设备。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com
骨科:
骨科手术的患者是极高危的人群。[63]Dahl OE, Caprini JA, Colwell CW Jr, et al. Fatal vascular outcomes following major orthopedic surgery. Thromb Haemost. 2005 May;93(5):860-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15886800?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Cordell-Smith JA, Williams SC, Harper WM, et al. Lower limb arthroplasty complicated by deep venous thrombosis: prevalence and subjective outcome. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2004 Jan;86(1):99-101.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14765874?tool=bestpractice.com 对于全髋关节置换术和全膝关节置换术,可采用低分子肝素、磺达肝癸钠、阿哌沙班、利伐沙班、达比加群、普通肝素、华法林、阿司匹林、和/或间歇充气加压装置作为预防治疗。[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Pour AE, Keshavarzi NR, Purtill JJ, et al. Is venous foot pump effective in prevention of thromboembolic disease after joint arthroplasty: a meta-analysis. J Arthroplasty. 2013 Mar;28(3):410-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23102505?tool=bestpractice.com 英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所指南推荐使用药物预防治疗;若存在药物预防治疗的禁忌证,则推荐使用机械预防治疗。[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89 对于全髋置换或全膝关节置换后采用阿司匹林进行静脉血栓栓塞的预防只有低质量证据。[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com 基于4个随机对照研究,[103]Eriksson BI, Dahl OE, Rosencher N, et al; RE-NOVATE Study Group. Dabigatran etexilate versus enoxaparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip replacement: a randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2007 Sep 15;370(9591):949-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17869635?tool=bestpractice.com[104]Eriksson BI, Dahl OE, Rosencher N, et al; RE-MODEL Study Group. Oral dabigatran etexilate vs. subcutaneous enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total knee replacement: the RE-MODEL randomized trial. J Thromb Haemost. 2007 Nov;5(11):2178-85.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2007.02748.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17764540?tool=bestpractice.com[105]Eriksson BI, Friedman JM. Oral dabigatran versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after primary total hip arthroplasty (RE-NOVATE II): A randomised, double-blind, non-inferiority trial. Thromb Haemost. 2011 Apr;105(4):721-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21225098?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Ginsberg JS, Davidson BL, Comp PC, et al; RE-MOBILIZE Writing Committee. Oral thrombin inhibitor dabigatran etexilate vs North American enoxaparin regimen for prevention of venous thromboembolism after knee arthroplasty surgery. J Arthroplasty. 2009 Jan;24(1):1-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18534438?tool=bestpractice.com 欧洲已批准使用达比加群酯治疗此适应症。在美国,达比加群仅被批准用于在进行髋关节置换术后对深静脉血栓形成和肺栓塞的预防。RECORD 系列研究中的 III 期试验发现,对于接受全膝关节和全髋关节置换术的患者,与依诺肝素相比,利伐沙班可明显降低静脉血栓栓塞形成,且不增加出血风险。[73]Turpie AG, Lassen MR, Davidson BL, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after total knee arthroplasty (RECORD4): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2009 May 16;373(9676):1673-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19411100?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Eriksson BI, Borris LC, Friedman RJ, et al; RECORD1 Study Group. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after hip arthroplasty. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jun 26;358(26):2765-75.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0800374http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18579811?tool=bestpractice.com[107]Lassen MR, Ageno W, Borris LC, et al; RECORD3 Investigators. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after total knee arthroplasty. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jun 26;358(26):2776-86.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa076016http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18579812?tool=bestpractice.com[108]Kakkar AK, Brenner B, Dahl OE, et al; RECORD2 Investigators. Extended duration rivaroxaban versus short-term enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip arthroplasty: a double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2008 Jul 5;372(9632):31-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18582928?tool=bestpractice.com 利伐沙班已被批准用于全髋及全膝关节置换术后的血栓预防治疗。基于 ADVANCE-2 和 ADVANCE-3 试验,阿哌沙班还被批准用于髋关节和膝关节成形术后的血栓预防治疗。[109]Lassen MR, Raskob GE, Gallus A, et al. Apixaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after knee replacement (ADVANCE-2): a randomised double-blind trial. Lancet. 2010 Mar 6;375(9717):807-15.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20206776?tool=bestpractice.com[110]Lassen MR, Gallus A, Raskob GE, et al; ADVANCE-3 Investigators. Apixaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after hip replacement. N Engl J Med. 2010 Dec 23;363(26):2487-98.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21175312?tool=bestpractice.com 美国胸科医师学会 (ACCP) 指南和 NICE 指南推荐,可使用利伐沙班、达比加群和阿哌沙班对进行选择性髋关节和膝关节置换的患者,进行降低静脉血栓栓塞风险的治疗,但不适用于髋部骨折手术。[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com[75]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Rivaroxaban for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip or total knee replacement in adults. Apr 2009 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA170[85]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Dabigatran etexilate for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after hip or knee replacement surgery in adults. Sept 2008 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA157[86]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Apixaban for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after total hip or knee replacement in adults. Jan 2012 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA245
对于髋部骨折手术患者的血栓预防,推荐使用低分子肝素、磺达肝癸钠、低剂量普通肝素、华法林、阿司匹林、或间歇充气加压 (IPC) 装置,首选低分子肝素。[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com NICE 指南推荐使用药物预防治疗;若存在药物预防治疗的禁忌证,则推荐使用机械预防治疗。如果髋部骨折手术推迟,则应在术前至少 12 小时给予低分子肝素或普通肝素治疗。[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com 术后预防性抗栓治疗至少持续10~14天。 如果患者接受骨科大手术应延长至35天,同时住院期间增加间歇气压疗法。[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Forster R, Stewart M. Anticoagulants (extended duration) for prevention of venous thromboembolism following total hip or knee replacement or hip fracture repair. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Mar 30;(3):CD004179.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004179.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27027384?tool=bestpractice.com
小腿胫腓骨或踝关节骨折通常不建议进行血栓预防治疗,除非存在静脉血栓栓塞额外危险因素。[48]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e278S-325S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60126-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Nicolaides AN, Fareed J, Kakkar AK, et al. Prevention and treatment of venous thromboembolism - international consensus statement. Int Angiol. 2013 Apr;32(2):111-260.https://europeanvenousforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/IUA_Guidelines_2013.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24402349?tool=bestpractice.com 不论是否预防血栓治疗,关节镜手术后近端发生深静脉血栓的概率非常低。关节镜手术后目前不建议给予血栓预防性治疗。[65]Sun Y, Chen D, Xu Z, et al. Deep venous thrombosis after knee arthroscopy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthroscopy. 2014 Mar;30(3):406-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24581264?tool=bestpractice.com
减重手术:
减重手术的患者可能也是高危人群,尽管目前尚无足够证据支持。推荐使用低分子肝素 (LMWH)、磺达肝癸钠或普通肝素 (UFH) 进行血栓预防, [
]How does fondaparinux compare with low molecular weight heparin for prevention of venous thromboembolism?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.2036/full显示答案 可能还须增加机械预防装置。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 对于肥胖患者应予以更高剂量的低分子肝素和普通肝素。2018 NICE 指南推荐,对于进行减重手术的患者,若其静脉血栓栓塞风险超过其出血风险,则加用至少 7 天的低分子肝素或磺达肝癸钠。[4]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism in over 16s: reducing the risk of hospital-acquired deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embolism. Mar 2018 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng89
特殊情况(肾脏疾病、肥胖、妊娠、肝素诱导的血小板减少症)
由于低分子肝素、磺达肝癸钠、利伐沙班、阿哌沙班和达比加群均通过肾脏排泄,因此有慢性肾脏病的患者使用时应谨慎。[55]Cestac P, Bagheri H, Lapeyre-Mestre M, et al. Utilisation and safety of low molecular weight heparins: prospective observational study in medical inpatients. Drug Saf. 2003;26(3):197-207.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12580648?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Lim W, Dentali F, Eikelboom JW, et al. Meta-analysis: low-molecular-weight heparin and bleeding in patients with severe renal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med. 2006 May 2;144(9):673-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16670137?tool=bestpractice.com 目前关于肌酐清除率下降(<30 mL/min)后使用低分子肝素的研究甚少,这是由于这类患者在随机对照研究中已被排除。有3种方式可供参考:使用普通肝素,根据产品说明减少低分子肝素的剂量,或测定抗Ⅹa因子抗体水平。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 由于目前尚未发现何种水平的抗Ⅹa因子对于预防剂量的低分子肝素有效且安全,因此不建议常规进行抗Ⅹa因子水平的测定。根据说明书可以减少依诺肝素的用量。已有的数据表明不同低分子肝素的分子水平对应的抗Ⅹa的生物活性聚集程度也有所不同。[112]Mahé I, Aghassarian M, Drouet L, et al. Tinzaparin and enoxaparin given at prophylactic dose for eight days in medical elderly patients with impaired renal function: a comparative pharmacokinetic study. Thromb Haemost. 2007 Apr;97(4):581-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17393021?tool=bestpractice.com 例如,对应肌酐清除率<30 mL/min的患者,有两项研究显示给予预防剂量的达肝素钠时没有抗Ⅹa活性的生物聚集。[113]Douketis J, Cook D, Meade M, et al. Prophylaxis against deep vein thrombosis in critically ill patients with severe renal insufficiency with the low-molecular-weight heparin dalteparin: an assessment of safety and pharmacodynamics: the DIRECT study. Arch Intern Med. 2008 Sep 8;168(16):1805-12.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/414451http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18779469?tool=bestpractice.com[114]Schmid P, Brodmann D, Fischer AG, et al. Study of bioaccumulation of dalteparin at a prophylactic dose in patients with various degrees of impaired renal function. J Thromb Haemost. 2009 Apr;7(4):552-8.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2009.03292.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19175499?tool=bestpractice.com 还需进一步的研究以证明是否有某种特定的低分子肝素对慢性肾脏病患者更安全。禁忌对严重肾功能衰竭(肌酐清除率<30 mL/min)患者使用磺达肝癸钠。不推荐肌酐清除率<30 mL/min 的患者使用达比加群,特别是与 P-糖蛋白抑制剂联合用药时。也不推荐肌酐清除率<30 mL/min 的患者使用利伐沙班。对肌酐清除率<30 mL/min 的患者采用阿哌沙班时要谨慎。
对于肥胖患者 (BMI>30 kg/m²),其预防性低分子肝素的剂量应基于体重给出,而不是固定剂量给药。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 体重<50 kg的患者存在出血的风险,应经验性地调整剂量,但指南未强调这个问题。[3]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e227S-77S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60125-1/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com 与其他传统心血管危险因素一样,肥胖似乎也并不会增加静脉血栓栓塞的风险。[115]Mahmoodi BK, Cushman M, Anne Næss I, et al. Association of traditional cardiovascular risk factors with venous thromboembolism: an individual participant data meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circulation. 2017 Jan 3;135(1):7-16. [Erratum in: Circulation. 2017 Mar 21;135(12 ):e788.]http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/135/1/7.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27831499?tool=bestpractice.com
对于需要血栓预防治疗的孕妇,低分子肝素和普通肝素是安全的,因为它们不经过胎盘。 2012美国胸内科医师协会指南建议对于妊娠患者,更优选低分子肝素。[116]Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 Suppl):e691S-736S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60136-6/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315276?tool=bestpractice.com 对于磺达肝素、利伐沙班或达比加群,目前尚无足够的证据支持可以在妊娠期使用。
既往有肝素诱发性血小板减少,是使用低分子肝素或普通肝素的重要禁忌证。尽管未能检测到血清抗血小板因子4抗体,也建议使用其他药物而避免使用低分子肝素或普通肝素。[54]Warkentin TE, Kelton JG. Temporal aspects of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. N Engl J Med. 2001 Apr 26;344(17):1286-92.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200104263441704http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11320387?tool=bestpractice.com 要确保在咨询过血栓专家后再决定最佳的治疗方案,因为这些药物半衰期很长并且没有化解的药物。