所有与通气不足综合征相关的不同疾病都有一个共性,即为了作出诊断,必须提出临床怀疑。很多这类疾病通常伴随有或者进展为肺泡通气不足。据此,临床医生应首先询问,然后确认患者的体征和症状是否可通过肺泡通气不足的诊断来解释。
与通气不足综合征相关的疾病状态包括肥胖-通气不足综合征 (OHS) 和限制性胸部疾病,例如胸壁畸形(脊柱后侧凸、纤维胸或胸廓塌陷)以及神经肌肉疾病的患者,尤其是杜氏肌营养不良和其他类型的肌肉萎缩症和脊肌萎缩症。其他疾病包括中枢性睡眠呼吸暂停综合征(例如特发性中枢性睡眠呼吸暂停)和陈-施氏呼吸 (CSR)。另一种中枢性但罕见的疾病是先天性中枢性肺泡通气不足。最终,阻塞性气道疾病(尤其是慢性阻塞性肺疾病)可能发展成肺泡通气不足,被纳入通气不足综合征的范畴。
病史
引起通气不足疾病的很多继发性症状都为非特异性症状,并具有极限值。在疾病的早期,患者可能完全无症状。然而,随着综合征的进展,通气不足患者最常出现的症状是劳力性呼吸困难,然后是静息时呼吸困难。由夜间通气不足造成的睡眠不安和日间嗜睡可能进展,并与清晨头痛和疲乏的症状相关。如果某种疾病引起了呼吸肌无力,则咳嗽受损和下呼吸道反复感染也可能使患者的病程恶化。此外,仔细采集病史有助于确定基础疾病的进展率,以便于开始进行合适的治疗干预。
先天性中枢性肺泡通气不足通常出现于新生儿,有一些有症状和无症状的儿童能幸存到成年。[25]Berry-Kravis EM, Zhou L, Rand CM, et al. Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: PHOX2B mutations and phenotype. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174:1139-1144.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200602-305OC#.U1ZtQvldUwwhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16888290?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Doherty LS, Kiely JL, Deegan PC, et al. Late-onset central hypoventilation syndrome: a family genetic study. Eur Respir J. 2007;29:312-316.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/29/2/312.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17264323?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Weese-Mayer DE, Berry-Kravis EM, Ceccherini I, et al. An official ATS clinical policy statement: congenital central hypoventilation syndrome: genetic basis, diagnosis and management. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;181:626-644.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200807-1069ST#.U1Ztf_ldUwwhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20208042?tool=bestpractice.com 神经肌肉疾病患者的睡眠障碍性呼吸(包括夜间肺泡通气不足)出现于童年。[16]Ragette R, Mellies U, Schwake C, et al. Patterns and predictors of sleep disordered breathing in primary myopathies. Thorax. 2002;57:724-728.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12149535?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Culebras A. Sleep disorders and neuromuscular disease. Semin Neurol. 2005;25:33-38.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15798935?tool=bestpractice.com 肥胖通气不足患者通常为中年人。[23]Mokhlesi B, Tulaimat A. Recent advances in obesity hypoventilation syndrome. Chest. 2007;132:1322-1336.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1085427http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934118?tool=bestpractice.com慢性阻塞性肺疾病的患者和 CSR 患者通常处于 40 至 60 岁的年龄段,但这一点是可变的。OHS 患者中,男性对女性的比例为 2:1。[23]Mokhlesi B, Tulaimat A. Recent advances in obesity hypoventilation syndrome. Chest. 2007;132:1322-1336.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1085427http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934118?tool=bestpractice.com
体格检查
体格检查的价值在于不仅描述了通气不足的原因(例如胸壁畸形、病态肥胖和重度慢性阻塞性肺疾病),也详细说明了由其造成的并发症(例如出现肺原性心脏病)的严重程度。当突发事件(例如呼吸道感染)能随时引发急性呼吸衰竭时,大多数患者的体格检查反映出的是肺泡通气不足在数月或数年间呈更平常的渐进式发展。由于日间 CO2 潴留和并发低氧血症,患者可能出现肺原性心脏病的症状,包括第二心音 (P2) 增强和下肢水肿。通气不足综合征的大多数病因都会造成 P2 增强。[16]Ragette R, Mellies U, Schwake C, et al. Patterns and predictors of sleep disordered breathing in primary myopathies. Thorax. 2002;57:724-728.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12149535?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Mokhlesi B, Tulaimat A. Recent advances in obesity hypoventilation syndrome. Chest. 2007;132:1322-1336.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1085427http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934118?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Culebras A. Sleep disorders and neuromuscular disease. Semin Neurol. 2005;25:33-38.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15798935?tool=bestpractice.com OHS 患者的 BMI>30 kg/m^2 时,其患病率随着 BMI 的增加而增加。[23]Mokhlesi B, Tulaimat A. Recent advances in obesity hypoventilation syndrome. Chest. 2007;132:1322-1336.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1085427http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934118?tool=bestpractice.com通气不足综合征的大多数病因都会造成明显的下肢水肿和右侧第三心音(S3 奔马律)。[16]Ragette R, Mellies U, Schwake C, et al. Patterns and predictors of sleep disordered breathing in primary myopathies. Thorax. 2002;57:724-728.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12149535?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Mokhlesi B, Tulaimat A. Recent advances in obesity hypoventilation syndrome. Chest. 2007;132:1322-1336.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1085427http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934118?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Culebras A. Sleep disorders and neuromuscular disease. Semin Neurol. 2005;25:33-38.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15798935?tool=bestpractice.com
其他疾病(例如 CSR)的体检结果可能提示左侧充血性心力衰竭,例如 S3 奔马律和肺部检查时的吸气性湿罗音。可从充血性心力衰竭引发 CSR 的患者身上观察到左侧第四心音(S4 奔马律)。
确诊检查
所有患者都需要进行动脉血气分析,从而证明 CO2 浓度升高并确诊。这是用于确诊肺泡通气不足并证明联合低氧血症程度的决定性试验。[29]Ozsancak A, D'Ambrosio C, Hill NS. Nocturnal noninvasive ventilation. Chest. 2008;133:1275-1286.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1085836http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18460530?tool=bestpractice.com如果通气不足越来越严重,高碳酸血症或低氧血症越来越明显,可能随之发生呼吸衰竭,则需进行通气支持。
肺功能试验,包括肺活量测定、肺容量测量和呼吸肌力测量,为找出通气不足潜在疾病的原因和其严重程度给出了重要线索。当神经肌肉疾病患者的用力肺活量 (FVC) 下降至小于 65% 预测值时,会出现明显的睡眠障碍性呼吸。[30]Alves RS, Resende MB, Skomro RP, et al. Sleep and neuromuscular disorders in children. Sleep Med Rev. 2009;13:133-148.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18534877?tool=bestpractice.comOHS 患者的限制模式总伴有补呼气量的降低。[31]Mokhlesi B, Kryger MH, Grunstein RR. Assessment and management of patients with obesity hypoventilation syndrome. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008;5:218-225.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2645254/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18250215?tool=bestpractice.com已知患有限制性胸部疾病患者的呼吸肌力将下降,这与睡眠障碍性呼吸的发展有关。[16]Ragette R, Mellies U, Schwake C, et al. Patterns and predictors of sleep disordered breathing in primary myopathies. Thorax. 2002;57:724-728.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12149535?tool=bestpractice.com由于在呼吸动力学异常和呼吸肌无力的共同作用下,OHS 的患者的呼吸肌力也会下降。[32]Koenig SM. Pulmonary complications of obesity. Am J Med Sci. 2001;321:249-279.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11307867?tool=bestpractice.com
由于与通气不足综合征相关的很多疾病最初都在睡眠期间(尤其是 REM 睡眠)出现更为显著的低氧血症,所以经常表明需要进行夜间多导睡眠监测。此外,很多疾病都联合阻塞性和中枢性睡眠障碍性呼吸,一经发现,需进行适当治疗。胸壁异常和神经肌肉疾病患者表明需要进行多导睡眠监测,从而确定哪些患者将通过夜间通气受益。[33]Sawicka EH, Branthwaite MA. Respiration during sleep in kyphoscoliosis. Thorax. 1987;42:801-808.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3424256?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Barthlen GM. Nocturnal respiratory failure as an indication of noninvasive ventilation in the patient with neuromuscular disease. Respiration. 1997;64(suppl 1):S35-S38.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9380959?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Pradella M. Sleep polygraphic parameters in neuromuscular diseases. Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 1994;52:476-483.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7611939?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Bourke SC, Gibson GJ. Sleep and breathing in neuromuscular disease. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:1194-1201.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/6/1194.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12108875?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Lofaso F, Quera-Salva MA. Polysomnography for the management of progressive neuromuscular disorders. Eur Respir J. 2002;19:989-990.http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/19/6/989.full.pdf+htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12108883?tool=bestpractice.com 它能识别出 OHS 患者联合阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停 (OSA)。[2]Mokhlesi B, Tulaimat A, Faibussowitsch I, et al. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome: prevalence and predictors in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath. 2007;11:117-124.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17187265?tool=bestpractice.com当充血性心力衰竭患者的左心室射血分数小于 45% 且睡眠不安时,多导睡眠监测可识别出 CSR。[5]Javaheri S, Parker TJ, Liming JD, et al. Sleep apnea in 81 ambulatory male patients with stable heart failure: types and their prevalences, consequences, and presentations. Circulation. 1998;97:2154-2159.http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/97/21/2154http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9626176?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Sin DD, Fitzgerald F, Parker JD, et al. Risk factors for central and obstructive sleep apnea in 450 men and women with congestive heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1101-1106.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.160.4.9903020http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10508793?tool=bestpractice.com[7]Oldenburg O, Lamp B, Faber L, et al. Sleep-disordered breathing in patients with symptomatic heart failure: a contemporary study of prevalence in and characteristics of 700 patients. Eur J Heart Fail. 2007;9:251-257.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17027333?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Krachman SL, D'Alonzo GE, Berger TJ, et al. Comparison of oxygen therapy with nasal continuous positive airway pressure on Cheyne-Stokes respiration during sleep in congestive heart failure. Chest. 1999;116:1550-1557.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1078359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10593775?tool=bestpractice.com 多导睡眠监测可用于疑似患有重叠综合征(联合 OSA)的慢性阻塞性肺疾病患者,但尚不明确是否可用于识别 REM 相关通气不足。
可通过超声心动图来评估肺原性心脏病和/或左侧充血性心力衰竭的出现。它证明了肺高压在 OHS 、[3]Kessler R, Chaouat A, Schinkewitch P, et al. The obesity-hypoventilation syndrome revisited: a prospective study of 34 consecutive cases. Chest. 2001;120:369-376.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1079891http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11502631?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Sugerman HJ, Fairman RP, Baron PL, et al. Gastric surgery for respiratory insufficiency of obesity. Chest. 1986;90:81-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3720390?tool=bestpractice.com神经肌肉疾病和慢性阻塞性肺疾病患者身上的发展。对于 CSR 患者而言,超声心动图证明了左心室功能障碍的严重程度。[5]Javaheri S, Parker TJ, Liming JD, et al. Sleep apnea in 81 ambulatory male patients with stable heart failure: types and their prevalences, consequences, and presentations. Circulation. 1998;97:2154-2159.http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/97/21/2154http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9626176?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Sin DD, Fitzgerald F, Parker JD, et al. Risk factors for central and obstructive sleep apnea in 450 men and women with congestive heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160:1101-1106.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.160.4.9903020http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10508793?tool=bestpractice.com[7]Oldenburg O, Lamp B, Faber L, et al. Sleep-disordered breathing in patients with symptomatic heart failure: a contemporary study of prevalence in and characteristics of 700 patients. Eur J Heart Fail. 2007;9:251-257.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17027333?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Krachman SL, D'Alonzo GE, Berger TJ, et al. Comparison of oxygen therapy with nasal continuous positive airway pressure on Cheyne-Stokes respiration during sleep in congestive heart failure. Chest. 1999;116:1550-1557.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1078359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10593775?tool=bestpractice.com
为了排除低氧血症的其他原因,应进行胸部 X 射线检查。
其他检查
尽管血清碳酸氢盐含量升高以及脉搏血氧饱和度降低,可能提示出现了肺泡通气不足,但不建议将其作为诊断试验。可以通过测量血清碳酸氢盐来筛查是否出现了肺泡通气不足,但不能以此确诊。[2]Mokhlesi B, Tulaimat A, Faibussowitsch I, et al. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome: prevalence and predictors in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath. 2007;11:117-124.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17187265?tool=bestpractice.com脉搏血氧测量法表明存在肺泡通气不足,但不能以此确诊。
在正确的临床情况下,可以进行其他实验室检查。对于出现甲状腺功能减退症状的高碳酸血症患者,有指征表明可进行促甲状腺激素水平测量。疑似或明确患有日间和/或夜间低氧血症的所有患者有指征表明进行红细胞比容测量。如果临床怀疑先天性中枢性肺泡通气不足,则应评估配对样同源异形框2B (PHOX2B) 基因的突变,因为注意到这些患者的突变率高达 91%。[24]Trang H, Dehan M, Beaufils F, et al; French CCHS Working Group. The French Congenital Central Hypoventilation Syndrome Registry: general data, phenotype, and genotype. Chest. 2005;127:72-79.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1083054http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15653965?tool=bestpractice.com