头虱病(头虱感染)的诊断应当依赖有专业知识的人员发现活的幼虱或成虱。[30]Mumcuoglu KY, Friger M, Ioffe-Uspensky I, et al. Louse comb versus direct visual examination for the diagnosis of head louse infestations. Ped Derm. 2001;18:9-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11207962?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Burgess I. Detection combing. Nurs Times. 2002;98:57.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12478939?tool=bestpractice.com 在距离头皮 6 mm 范围内的虱卵通常是活的,并高度提示活动性侵染。[3]Ko CJ, Elston DM. Pediculosis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;50:1-14.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14699358?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Leung AK, Fong JH, Pinto-Rojas A. Pediculosis capitis. J Ped Health Care. 2005;19:369-373.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16286223?tool=bestpractice.com 在显微镜检查中,活虱卵可见一个黑色眼点。
病史
在工业化国家中进行的大部分头虱研究发现,小学阶段学龄儿童(3-12 岁)发病率最高。[2]Burgess I. Human lice and their control. Ann Rev Entomol. 2004;49:457-481.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14651472?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Downs A, Oxley J. Head lice infestations in different ethnic groups. Int J Derm. 2001;40:237-240.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11422534?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Gratz NG; World Health Organization/WHOPES. Human lice: their prevalence, control and resistance to insecticides - a review, 1985-1997. August 1997. http://whqlibdoc.who.int (last accessed 2 November 2016).http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_CTD_WHOPES_97.8.pdf 患头虱的成人最可能是患头虱孩子的父母,或者生活在过度拥挤的环境中。[8]American Academy of Pediatrics; Devore CD, Schutze GE. Head lice. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e1355-e1365.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/135/5/e1355.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25917986?tool=bestpractice.com 大部分有关不同性别学龄儿童头虱感染发病率的研究表明,女童与男童的比率为 2-3:1。[2]Burgess I. Human lice and their control. Ann Rev Entomol. 2004;49:457-481.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14651472?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Gratz NG; World Health Organization/WHOPES. Human lice: their prevalence, control and resistance to insecticides - a review, 1985-1997. August 1997. http://whqlibdoc.who.int (last accessed 2 November 2016).http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_CTD_WHOPES_97.8.pdf[19]Estrada JS, Morris RI. Pediculosis in a school population. J Sch Nurs. 2000;16:32-38.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11885087?tool=bestpractice.com
其他危险因素包括,非黑人人种、过度拥挤或封闭的生活环境(例如,在前一个月参加聚会或露营、上寄宿学校)、与被感染个体密切接触。[2]Burgess I. Human lice and their control. Ann Rev Entomol. 2004;49:457-481.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14651472?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Downs A, Oxley J. Head lice infestations in different ethnic groups. Int J Derm. 2001;40:237-240.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11422534?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Gratz NG; World Health Organization/WHOPES. Human lice: their prevalence, control and resistance to insecticides - a review, 1985-1997. August 1997. http://whqlibdoc.who.int (last accessed 2 November 2016).http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1997/WHO_CTD_WHOPES_97.8.pdf 头虱最容易通过头与头接触传播。任何能够导致受侵儿童与其他人密切接触的环境都有可能引起感染传播。[21]Chunge RN, Scott FE, Underwood JE, et al. A pilot study to investigate transmission of head lice. Can J Public Health. 1991;82:207-208.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1884317?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Burkhart CN, Burkhart CG. Fomite transmission in head lice. J Am Acad Derm. 2007;56:6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17187895?tool=bestpractice.com[28]American Academy of Pediatrics. Head lice. In: 2006 Red Book: report of the committee on infectious diseases. 27:448-492. 因此,家庭成员或同床者患头虱极大地增加了感染的风险。[21]Chunge RN, Scott FE, Underwood JE, et al. A pilot study to investigate transmission of head lice. Can J Public Health. 1991;82:207-208.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1884317?tool=bestpractice.com
通常来说,父母或教师会观察到孩子过度抓挠头皮,儿童也会抱怨头皮痒。
体格检查
怀疑有头虱的人,包括与有头虱的个体发生过密切接触的人应当进行仔细的头皮检查,即使没有症状。 同样,如果注意到任何人有头皮感染(例如,脓疱病或脓皮病)或其他原因不明的头颈区域淋巴结病,应当仔细检查,确认是否存在头虱感染。[2]Burgess I. Human lice and their control. Ann Rev Entomol. 2004;49:457-481.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14651472?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Ko CJ, Elston DM. Pediculosis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;50:1-14.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14699358?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Leung AK, Fong JH, Pinto-Rojas A. Pediculosis capitis. J Ped Health Care. 2005;19:369-373.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16286223?tool=bestpractice.com
确诊标准是头部发现活虱。[1]Burgess IF, Silverston P. Head lice. Clin Evid (Online). January 2015. http://clinicalevidence.bmj.com (last accessed 2 November 2016).http://clinicalevidence.bmj.com/ceweb/conditions/skd/1703/1703.jsphttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25587918?tool=bestpractice.com[8]American Academy of Pediatrics; Devore CD, Schutze GE. Head lice. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e1355-e1365.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/135/5/e1355.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25917986?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Pollack RJ, Kiszewski AD, Spielman A. Overdiagnosis and consequent mismanagement of head louse infestation in North America. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:689-693.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10959734?tool=bestpractice.com 这一点可能很难做到,因为虱常爬得很快。应当让儿童将头前倾至胸部,在良好光线下检查最靠近后颈和耳后的头发,利用手指、小棒/喉培养拭子或压舌板将头发分成几部分。
在诊断头虱感染时,梳理比目视检查更准确。 已有报道,目视检查低估了活跃头虱感染的发生率,其低估因子为 3.5,尽管目视检查对于诊断既往头虱感染具有更高的敏感性。[33]Jahnke C, Bauer E, Hengge UR, et al. Accuracy of diagnosis of pediculosis capitis: visual inspection vs wet combing. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145:309-313.http://archderm.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=711918http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19289764?tool=bestpractice.com感染诊断:中等质量的证据表明,湿梳诊断活跃感染的敏感性显著高于目视检查(两者分别为 90.5% 和 28.6%;p = 0.001)。 湿梳的准确率为 99.3%,目视检查的准确率为 95%。 但是,在诊断既往感染时,目视检查的敏感性更高(分别为 86.1% 和 68.4%;p = 0.001)。[33]Jahnke C, Bauer E, Hengge UR, et al. Accuracy of diagnosis of pediculosis capitis: visual inspection vs wet combing. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145:309-313.http://archderm.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=711918http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19289764?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。
用水(会使虱更容易粘在梳子上)或护发素(使虱爬行更慢并且更容易梳理)湿润头发。 应使用密细齿梳梳理潮湿的头发,特别是靠近后颈和耳后,检查虱卵或成虱。 在干燥条件下,梳理会产生假阴性结果,因为虱会迅速从被梳理的区域爬走。 此外,干梳过程应当谨慎,因为用力地使用塑料梳子梳理会产生足够的静电,弹开头虱,这将导致别处发生感染,这取决于其降落的位置。[26]Williams LK, Reichert A, MacKenzie WR, et al. Lice, nits, and school policy. Pediatrics. 2001;107:1011-1015.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11331679?tool=bestpractice.com[28]American Academy of Pediatrics. Head lice. In: 2006 Red Book: report of the committee on infectious diseases. 27:448-492.[29]Public Health Medicine Environmental Group. Head lice: evidence-based guidelines based on the Stafford Report - 2012 update [internet publication].http://www.nhsggc.org.uk/media/239960/stafford-head-lice-2012.pdf[30]Mumcuoglu KY, Friger M, Ioffe-Uspensky I, et al. Louse comb versus direct visual examination for the diagnosis of head louse infestations. Ped Derm. 2001;18:9-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11207962?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Burgess I. Detection combing. Nurs Times. 2002;98:57.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12478939?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Balcioglu C, Burgess IF, Limoncu ME, et al. Plastic detection comb better than visual screening for diagnosis of head louse infestation. Epidemiol Infect. 2008;136:1425-1431.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18177517?tool=bestpractice.com
有些人认为,在距离头皮 1 cm 范围内存在活卵可以诊断为头虱感染,但是有些研究者发现很多只携带虱卵的患者不会转变为活动期感染。[26]Williams LK, Reichert A, MacKenzie WR, et al. Lice, nits, and school policy. Pediatrics. 2001;107:1011-1015.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11331679?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Pollack RJ, Kiszewski AD, Spielman A. Overdiagnosis and consequent mismanagement of head louse infestation in North America. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:689-693.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10959734?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Hootman J. Quality improvement projects related to pediculosis management. J School Nursing. 2002;18:80-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12017250?tool=bestpractice.com 在距离头皮超过 1 cm 范围内发现空虱卵壳不应诊断为头虱感染。
尽管不是总见到,紧靠发际线下的后颈部小丘疹并不少见,代表了虱咬伤。 周围的炎症继发于身体对头虱唾液的反应。[11]Meinking TL. Infestations: pediculosis. Curr Probl Dermatol. 1999;11:73-120.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8743266?tool=bestpractice.com
头虱极少离开头部,但在异常严重的感染中,偶尔可在衣领部位看到。 在衣领部位发现的虱可以为头虱(对于儿童来说是最可能的诊断)或体虱(如果其为无家可归者或赤贫者)。[32]Pollack RJ, Kiszewski AD, Spielman A. Overdiagnosis and consequent mismanagement of head louse infestation in North America. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:689-693.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10959734?tool=bestpractice.com
使用放大镜、毛发检视镜或显微镜进行检查
如果诊断存在疑问,可使用放大镜、毛发检视镜或显微镜进行检查,将幼虱/成虱与其他昆虫或发屑区分开来。可以将具有眼点的卵与空卵壳或虱卵区分开来。这项检查可以区分虱卵与头皮屑或其他发屑,而在用肉眼随机观察时有时会难以区分。虱卵紧紧地黏附在毛干上,可以用指甲或密细齿虱梳去除。另一种方法是拔下带有虱卵的头发,在显微镜下检查。
由于学校护士很少配有这些设备,因此可能需要转诊至医疗卫生机构的门诊。[32]Pollack RJ, Kiszewski AD, Spielman A. Overdiagnosis and consequent mismanagement of head louse infestation in North America. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:689-693.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10959734?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 在显微镜下观察成虱由 Richard Pollack 博士提供;获准使用 [Citation ends].