对于轻度和中度哮吼,主要治疗目标为减轻症状;主要治疗方法为支持治疗以及口服或雾化吸入皮质类固醇。对于中度哮吼,还需联合雾化吸入肾上腺素。儿童注射肾上腺素后观察 2-4 小时才能安全出院回家。[35]Rizos JD, DiGravio BE, Sehl MJ, et al. The disposition of children with croup treated with racemic epinephrine and dexamethasone in the emergency department. J Emerg Med. 1998;16:535-539.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9696166?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Johnson DW, Jacobson S, Edney PC, et al. A comparison of nebulized budesonide, intramuscular dexamethasone, and placebo for moderately severe croup. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:498-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9709042?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Ledwith C, Shea L, Mauro R. Safety and efficacy of nebulized racemic epinephrine in conjunction with oral dexamethasone and mist in the outpatient treatment of croup. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;25:331-337.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7864472?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Kunkel NC, Baker MD. Use of racemic epinephrine, dexamethasone, and mist in the outpatient management of croup. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1996;12:156-159.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8806135?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Prendergast M, Jones JS, Hartman D. Racemic epinephrine in the treatment of laryngotracheitis: can we identify children for outpatient therapy? Am J Emerg Med. 1994;12:613-616.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7945599?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Kelley PB, Simon JE. Racemic epinephrine use in croup and disposition. Am J Emerg Med. 1992;10:181-183.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1375027?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Corneli H, Bolte R. Outpatient use of racemic epinephrine in croup. Am Fam Physician. 1992;46:683-684.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1514465?tool=bestpractice.com
对于严重哮吼,主要治疗目的是防止气道进一步梗阻。儿童出现显著的呼吸窘迫时,除了给予雾化吸入或胃肠外使用皮质类固醇和肾上腺激素联合治疗以外,还应给予氧疗。[19]Johnson D, Klassen T, Kellner J. Diagnosis and management of croup: Alberta Medical Association clinical practice guidelines. Alberta: Alberta Medical Association; 2015. http://www.topalbertadoctors.org (last accessed 22 October 2016).http://www.topalbertadoctors.org/cpgs.php?sid=12&cpg_cats=35[42]Kaditis AG, Wald ER. Viral croup: current diagnosis and treatment. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17:827-834.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9779773?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Klassen TP. Croup. A current perspective. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1999;46:1167-1178.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10629679?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Brown JC. The management of croup. Br Med Bull. 2002;61:189-202.http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/61/1/189http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11997306?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Geelhoed GC. Croup. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1997;23:370-374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9168511?tool=bestpractice.com 濒临呼吸衰竭时需行气管插管。[46]Sofer S, Dagan R, Tal A. The need for intubation in serious upper respiratory tract infection in pediatric patients (a retrospective study). Infection. 1991;19:131-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1889864?tool=bestpractice.com[47]Sendi K, Crysdale WS, Yoo J. Tracheitis: outcome of 1,700 cases presenting to the emergency department during two years. J Otolaryngol. 1992;21:20-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1564745?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Tan AK, Manoukian JJ. Hospitalized croup (bacterial and viral): the role of rigid endoscopy. J Otolaryngol. 1992:21;48-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1564750?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Dawson KP, Mogridge N, Downward G. Severe acute laryngotracheitis in Christchurch 1980-90. N Z Med J. 1991;104:374-375.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1923075?tool=bestpractice.com
因激越可能会使症状恶化,所以应谨慎避免儿童受到惊吓。[19]Johnson D, Klassen T, Kellner J. Diagnosis and management of croup: Alberta Medical Association clinical practice guidelines. Alberta: Alberta Medical Association; 2015. http://www.topalbertadoctors.org (last accessed 22 October 2016).http://www.topalbertadoctors.org/cpgs.php?sid=12&cpg_cats=35 为了保证舒适,在评估和治疗过程中,儿童应舒适地坐在医务人员的腿上。尽管鲜有关于对哮吼患者用氧的研究,但关于将其用于显著呼吸窘迫患儿的临床理论很明确。严重哮吼导致缺氧的机制是继发于通气不足。因此,应不断地进行严密监护和反复评估。在距离患儿鼻腔或口腔几厘米处放置塑料吸氧软管的开口端,通过给予湿化的氧气,尽量减少引起患儿激越的可能性。[19]Johnson D, Klassen T, Kellner J. Diagnosis and management of croup: Alberta Medical Association clinical practice guidelines. Alberta: Alberta Medical Association; 2015. http://www.topalbertadoctors.org (last accessed 22 October 2016).http://www.topalbertadoctors.org/cpgs.php?sid=12&cpg_cats=35[42]Kaditis AG, Wald ER. Viral croup: current diagnosis and treatment. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17:827-834.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9779773?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Klassen TP. Croup. A current perspective. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1999;46:1167-1178.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10629679?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Brown JC. The management of croup. Br Med Bull. 2002;61:189-202.http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/61/1/189http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11997306?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Geelhoed GC. Croup. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1997;23:370-374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9168511?tool=bestpractice.com
尤其在轻度哮吼时,应安慰父母,并告知该疾病具有自限性很重要。
皮质类固醇是轻度、证据 A额外医疗照护的必要性和症状严重程度:有高质量的证据表明,对于轻度哮吼患儿,与给予安慰剂相比,单剂口服地塞米松能减少额外医疗照护。中等质量的证据显示,对于同一组患儿,与给予安慰剂相比,单剂口服地塞米松能减轻症状的严重程度。系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 中度证据 B症状严重程度:有中等质量的证据显示,对于中度至重度哮吼患者,与安慰剂相比,口服或肌内注射地塞米松能减轻 12-24 小时后的严重程度。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 和重度证据 A减少气管插管率和插管时间:有高质量的证据显示,皮质类固醇治疗能减少气管插管率和插管时间。针对 10 项随机对照试验的 meta 分析(纳入 1286 名患严重哮吼且濒临呼吸衰竭的儿童)显示,接受皮质类固醇治疗患儿的气管内插管率减少 5 倍。[50]Kairys SW, Marsh-Olmstead EM, O'Connor GT. Steroid treatment of laryngotracheitis: a meta-analysis of the evidence from randomized trials. Pediatrics. 1989;83:683-693.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2654865?tool=bestpractice.com 另一项研究发现,与使用安慰剂的患儿相比,在接受气管插管和皮质类固醇联合治疗的 70 名严重哮吼患儿中,插管时间减少 1/3,而且再次插管的风险减少了 7 倍。[51]Tibballs J, Shann FA, Landau LI. Placebo-controlled trial of prednisolone in children intubated for croup. Lancet. 1992;340:745-748.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1356176?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 哮吼的主要药物治疗。[36]Johnson DW, Jacobson S, Edney PC, et al. A comparison of nebulized budesonide, intramuscular dexamethasone, and placebo for moderately severe croup. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:498-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9709042?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Tibballs J, Shann FA, Landau LI. Placebo-controlled trial of prednisolone in children intubated for croup. Lancet. 1992;340:745-748.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1356176?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Klassen TP, Feldman ME, Watters LK, et al. Nebulized budesonide for children with mild-to-moderate croup. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:285-289.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8022437?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Geelhoed GC, Macdonald WB. Oral and inhaled steroids in croup: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1995;20:355-361.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8649914?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Geelhoed GC. Sixteen years of croup in a Western Australian teaching hospital: effects of routine steroid treatment. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;28:621-626.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8953950?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Bjornson CL, Klassen TP, Williamson J, et al. A randomized trial of a single dose of oral dexamethasone for mild croup. N Engl J Med. 2004;351:1306-1313.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15385657?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Kairys SW, Marsh-Olmstead EM, O'Connor GT. Steroid treatment of laryngotracheitis: a meta-analysis of the evidence from randomized trials. Pediatrics. 1989;83:683-693.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2654865?tool=bestpractice.com一项系统评价显示,使用皮质类固醇治疗中至重度儿童哮吼可使需要雾化吸入肾上腺素的绝对比例下降 10%,住院或急诊停留时间平均缩短 12 小时,入院治疗次数或复诊次数减少 50%。[56]Russell KF, Liang Y, O'Gorman K, et al. Glucocorticoids for croup. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(1):CD001955.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/o/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD001955/frame.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21249651?tool=bestpractice.com
通常用单剂口服地塞米松,2 小时内治疗效果明显,初次给药后的有益作用可长达 10 个小时。[36]Johnson DW, Jacobson S, Edney PC, et al. A comparison of nebulized budesonide, intramuscular dexamethasone, and placebo for moderately severe croup. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:498-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9709042?tool=bestpractice.com 对于哮吼的治疗,常规给予 0.6 mg/kg/剂;然而,有证据支持使用更低的剂量:0.15 mg/kg/剂。证据 B对治疗的反应:有中等质量证据显示,在诱导治疗反应方面,高剂量皮质类固醇并不比低剂量皮质类固醇更有效。关于住院儿童的 meta 分析表明,与安慰剂相比,高剂量氢化可的松当量的治疗与更高比例的患儿出现治疗反应相关(有分析方法学问题)。[50]Kairys SW, Marsh-Olmstead EM, O'Connor GT. Steroid treatment of laryngotracheitis: a meta-analysis of the evidence from randomized trials. Pediatrics. 1989;83:683-693.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2654865?tool=bestpractice.com 四项比较口服不同剂量地塞米松的小型随机对照试验一致表明,不同剂量 (0.15-0.6 mg/kg) 之间无显著差异。[57]Chub-Uppakarn S, Sangsupawanich P. A randomized comparison of dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg versus 0.6 mg/kg for the treatment of moderate to severe croup. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;71:473-477.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17208307?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Geelhoed GC, Macdonald WB. Oral dexamethasone in the treatment of croup: 0.15 mg/kg versus 0.3 mg/kg versus 0.6 mg/kg. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1995;20:362-368.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8649915?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Fifoot AA, Ting JY. Comparison between single-dose oral prednisolone and oral dexamethasone in the treatment of croup: a randomized, double-blinded clinical trial. Emerg Med Australas. 2007;19:51-58.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305661?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Alshehri M, Almegamsi T, Hammdi A. Efficacy of a small dose of oral dexamethasone in croup. Biomedical Research. 2005;16:65-72.受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 加用吸入布地奈德未显示额外的疗效。[61]Geelhoed GC. Budesonide offers no advantage when added to oral dexamethasone in the treatment of croup. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2005;21:359-362.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15942511?tool=bestpractice.com证据 B症状严重程度和住院:有中等质量的证据表明,对于中至中度哮吼患者,与单独雾化吸入布地奈德或单独口服地塞米松相比,口服地塞米松联合雾化吸入布地奈德并不能有效地减轻症状严重程度(4 小时后)或降低住院率(1 周后)。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 比较单剂皮质类固醇与多剂皮质类固醇效果的证据不足。多数哮吼症状会在发作后 3 天内消退,地塞米松的抗炎效果能持续 2-4 天,第二剂给药对大多数儿童可能无效。[62]Schimmer B, Parker K. Adrenocorticotropic hormone: adrenocortical steroids and their synthetic analogs - inhibitors of the synthesis and actions of adrenocortical hormones. In: Brunton L, Lazo J, Parker K, eds. Goodman and Gilman's the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. Columbus: McGraw-Hill, 2006:1587-612.
对于中度至重度哮吼,口服和肌内注射皮质类固醇的效果等于或优于吸入皮质类固醇的。[36]Johnson DW, Jacobson S, Edney PC, et al. A comparison of nebulized budesonide, intramuscular dexamethasone, and placebo for moderately severe croup. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:498-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9709042?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Geelhoed GC, Macdonald WB. Oral and inhaled steroids in croup: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1995;20:355-361.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8649914?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Klassen TP, Craig WR, Moher D, et al. Nebulized budesonide and oral dexamethasone for treatment of croup: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1998;279:1629-1632.http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/279/20/1629http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9613912?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Pedersen LV, Dahl M, Falk-Petersen HE, et al. Inhaled budesonide versus intramuscular dexamethasone in the treatment of pseudo-croup [in Danish]. Ugeskr Laeger. 1998;160:2253-2256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9599521?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Cetinkaya F, Tufekci BS, Kutluk G. A comparison of nebulized budesonide, and intramuscular, and oral dexamethasone for treatment of croup. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2004;68:453-456.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15013613?tool=bestpractice.com 对于口服给药不耐受或吸收困难的儿童(例如,持续呕吐或严重呼吸窘迫的儿童),有必要通过其他方式给药。严重缺氧时,肠道和组织灌注下降,会妨碍口服和肌内注射给药的吸收,这时最佳的给药方式是吸入布地奈德。建立静脉通道会增加患儿不适,还可能促发呼吸衰竭。考虑静脉给药时应极其谨慎。
至今为止,哮吼儿童使用皮质类固醇治疗没有出现过任何不良反应。理论上的顾虑包括近期暴露于水痘的儿童发生水痘并发症(细菌重叠感染、播散性水痘病毒感染)的风险会增加。证据 C水痘并发症的风险:2 项低质量病例对照研究的结果相反。一项研究显示,用皮质类固醇进行治疗时,免疫能力正常的儿童发生复杂性水痘的风险会增加,[66]Dowell SF, Bresee JS. Severe varicella associated with steroid use. Pediatrics. 1993;92:223-228.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8337020?tool=bestpractice.com 而第二项研究没有发现相同的结果。[67]Patel H, Macarthur C, Johnson D. Recent corticosteroid use and the risk of complicated varicella in otherwise immunocompetent children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996;150:409-414.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8634737?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
对于中度和重度哮吼,应将雾化吸入肾上腺素与地塞米松联合使用,因为肾上腺素能暂时缓解气道阻塞症状。 [68]Adair JC, Ring WH, Jordan WS, et al. Ten-year experience with IPPB in the treatment of acute laryngotracheobronchitis. Anesth Analg. 1971;50:649-655.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4934175?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Bjornson C, Russell K, Vandermeer B, et al. Nebulized epinephrine for croup in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(10):CD006619.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006619.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24114291?tool=bestpractice.com证据 B症状严重程度:有中等质量的证据显示,对于中度至重度哮吼患儿,与使用安慰剂或未治疗相比,雾化吸入肾上腺素在 10-30 分钟后能降低症状的严重程度,但该效果短暂。[70]Kristjansson S, Berg-Kelly K, Winso E. Inhalation of racemic adrenaline in the treatment of mild and moderately severe croup. Clinical symptom score and oxygen saturation measurements for evaluation of treatment effects. Acta Paediatr. 1994;83:1156-1160.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7841729?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Taussig LM, Castro O, Beaudry PH, et al. Treatment of laryngotracheobronchitis (croup). Use of intermittent positive-pressure breathing and racemic epinephrine. Am J Dis Child. 1975;129:790-793.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1096594?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Westley CR, Cotton EK, Brooks JG. Nebulized racemic epinephrine by IPPB for the treatment of croup: a double-blind study. Am J Dis Child. 1978;132:484-487.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/347921?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 给药后 10-30 分钟内,喘鸣和胸骨/肋间凹陷明显减轻。[36]Johnson DW, Jacobson S, Edney PC, et al. A comparison of nebulized budesonide, intramuscular dexamethasone, and placebo for moderately severe croup. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:498-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9709042?tool=bestpractice.com 雾化吸入肾上腺素的临床效果平均持续至少 1 小时,但通常在给药 2 小时后作用消退。[33]Westley CR, Cotton EK, Brooks JG. Nebulized racemic epinephrine by IPPB for the treatment of croup: a double-blind study. Am J Dis Child. 1978;132:484-487.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/347921?tool=bestpractice.com 一般来说,症状消退至基线水平,而且没有反跳效应。[71]Taussig LM, Castro O, Beaudry PH, et al. Treatment of laryngotracheobronchitis (croup). Use of intermittent positive-pressure breathing and racemic epinephrine. Am J Dis Child. 1975;129:790-793.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1096594?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Westley CR, Cotton EK, Brooks JG. Nebulized racemic epinephrine by IPPB for the treatment of croup: a double-blind study. Am J Dis Child. 1978;132:484-487.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/347921?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Steele DW, Santucci KA, Wright RO, et al. Pulsus paradoxus: an objective measure of severity in croup. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:331-334.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.157.1.9701071#.U3oQXD8hO3whttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9445317?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Fanconi S, Burger R, Maurer H, et al. Transcutaneous carbon dioxide pressure for monitoring patients with severe croup. J Pediatr. 1990;117:701-705.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2121944?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Corkey CW, Barker GA, Edmonds JF, et al. Radiographic tracheal diameter measurements in acute infectious croup: an objective scoring system. Crit Care Med. 1981;9:587-590.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7021067?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Gardner HG, Powell KR, Roden VJ, et al. The evaluation of racemic epinephrine in the treatment of infectious croup. Pediatrics. 1973;52:52-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4579587?tool=bestpractice.com [ ]What are the effects of nebulized epinephrine in children with croup?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.281/full显示答案
尽管传统上使用消旋肾上腺素治疗儿童哮吼,L-肾上腺素对中度至重度哮吼同样有效。[76]Waisman Y, Klein BL, Boenning DA, et al. Prospective randomized double-blind study comparing L-epinephrine and racemic epinephrine aerosols in the treatment of laryngotracheitis (croup). Pediatrics. 1992;89:302-306.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1734400?tool=bestpractice.com 在一些国家,L-肾上腺素的可用性可能有限。无论体重是多少,雾化吸入肾上腺素的剂量相同,因为到达气道药物的有效剂量主要由个体的潮气量决定。[77]Janssens HM, Krijgsman A, Verbraak TF, et al. Determining factors of aerosol deposition for four pMDI-spacer combinations in an infant upper airway model. J Aerosol Med. 2004;17:51-61.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15120013?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Fink JB. Aerosol delivery to ventilated infant and pediatric patients. Respir Care. 2004;49:653-665.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15165300?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Schuepp KG, Straub D, Moller A, et al. Deposition of aerosols in infants and children. J Aerosol Med. 2004;17:153-156.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15294065?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Wildhaber JH, Monkhoff M, Sennhauser FH. Dosage regimens for inhaled therapy in children should be reconsidered. J Paediatr Child Health. 2002;38:115-116.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12030988?tool=bestpractice.com 一次给予一剂药物时,未见不良反应。[76]Waisman Y, Klein BL, Boenning DA, et al. Prospective randomized double-blind study comparing L-epinephrine and racemic epinephrine aerosols in the treatment of laryngotracheitis (croup). Pediatrics. 1992;89:302-306.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1734400?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Kristjansson S, Berg-Kelly K, Winso E. Inhalation of racemic adrenaline in the treatment of mild and moderately severe croup. Clinical symptom score and oxygen saturation measurements for evaluation of treatment effects. Acta Paediatr. 1994;83:1156-1160.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7841729?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Taussig LM, Castro O, Beaudry PH, et al. Treatment of laryngotracheobronchitis (croup). Use of intermittent positive-pressure breathing and racemic epinephrine. Am J Dis Child. 1975;129:790-793.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1096594?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Fogel JM, Berg IJ, Gerber MA, et al. Racemic epinephrine in the treatment of croup: nebulization alone versus nebulization with intermittent positive pressure breathing. J Pediatr. 1982;101:1028-1031.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6754899?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Chub-Uppakarn S, Sangsupawanich P. A randomized comparison of dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg versus 0.6 mg/kg for the treatment of moderate to severe croup. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;71:473-477.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17208307?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Weber JE, Chudnofsky CR, Younger JG, et al. A randomized comparison of helium-oxygen mixture (Heliox) and racemic epinephrine for the treatment of moderate to severe croup. Pediatrics. 2001;107:E96.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/6/e96http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11389294?tool=bestpractice.com[83]Zhang L, Sanguebsche LS. The safety of nebulization with 3 to 5 ml of adrenaline (1:1000) in children: an evidence based review. J Pediatr (Rio J). 2005;81:193-197.http://www.jped.com.br/conteudo/05-81-03-193/ing.asphttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15951902?tool=bestpractice.com 应特别小心单次使用多剂雾化吸入肾上腺素。证据 C与多剂量雾化吸入肾上腺素有关的不良反应风险:来自一项病例报道的低质量证据显示使用多剂量雾化吸入肾上腺素的不良反应风险增加,在该病例报道中,一名既往健康患严重哮吼的儿童在 1 个小时内雾化吸入 3 剂肾上腺素后出现室性心动过速和心肌梗死。[84]Butte MJ, Nguyen BX, Hutchison TJ, et al. Pediatric myocardial infarction after racemic epinephrine administration. Pediatrics. 1999;104:e9.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/104/1/e9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10390295?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 没有关于已知有心脏疾病的儿童在使用盐酸肾上腺素后发生并发症的报告。但是,如果必须使用肾上腺素治疗,应仔细观察。
在联合给药后几个小时内患儿无反应时,应重新评估,以排除其他诊断。
随着病情发展出现胸腹矛盾运动、疲乏、缺氧体征(苍白或发绀)和高碳酸血症体征(动脉血二氧化碳分压上升继发意识水平下降)时,为了保护气道,必要时可行气管插管术。
传统上广泛使用雾化或湿化的空气,但现在有令人信服的证据表明其无效[19]Johnson D, Klassen T, Kellner J. Diagnosis and management of croup: Alberta Medical Association clinical practice guidelines. Alberta: Alberta Medical Association; 2015. http://www.topalbertadoctors.org (last accessed 22 October 2016).http://www.topalbertadoctors.org/cpgs.php?sid=12&cpg_cats=35[85]Henry R. Moist air in the treatment of laryngotracheitis. Arch Dis Child. 1983;58:577.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=6614970http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6614970?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Lenney W, Milner AD. Treatment of acute viral croup. Arch Dis Child. 1978;53:704-706.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=718237http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/718237?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Bourchier D, Dawson KP, Fergusson DM. Humidification in viral croup: a controlled trial. Aust Paediatr J. 1984;20:289-291.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6397182?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Skolnik N. Treatment of croup. A critical review. Am J Dis Child. 1989;143:1045-1049.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2672782?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Neto GM, Kentab O, Klassen TP, et al. A randomized controlled trial of mist in the acute treatment of moderate croup. Acad Emerg Med. 2002;9:873-879.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12208675?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Lavine E, Scolnik D. Lack of efficacy of humidification in the treatment of croup. Why do physicians persist in using an unproven modality? CJEM. 2001;3:209-212.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17610786?tool=bestpractice.com证据 B症状改善:有中等质量证据显示,与使用非湿化或低湿度空气相比,使用湿化空气对中度至重度哮吼并没有显著的改善。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 甚至在某些情况下有害。例如,热湿空气会增加烫伤风险[91]Greally P, Cheng K, Tanner MS, et al. Children with croup presenting with scalds. BMJ. 1990;301:113.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=2390568http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2390568?tool=bestpractice.com 而且如果未经适当清洁,雾气罩可能会促进霉菌生长。[90]Lavine E, Scolnik D. Lack of efficacy of humidification in the treatment of croup. Why do physicians persist in using an unproven modality? CJEM. 2001;3:209-212.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17610786?tool=bestpractice.com 另外,在与照护者分离的寒冷潮湿环境中,儿童的激越可能加重。
尚未研究抗生素、β2 受体激动剂和减充血剂,不应鼓励使用。[19]Johnson D, Klassen T, Kellner J. Diagnosis and management of croup: Alberta Medical Association clinical practice guidelines. Alberta: Alberta Medical Association; 2015. http://www.topalbertadoctors.org (last accessed 22 October 2016).http://www.topalbertadoctors.org/cpgs.php?sid=12&cpg_cats=35[42]Kaditis AG, Wald ER. Viral croup: current diagnosis and treatment. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17:827-834.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9779773?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Klassen TP. Croup. A current perspective. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1999;46:1167-1178.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10629679?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Brown JC. The management of croup. Br Med Bull. 2002;61:189-202.http://bmb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/61/1/189http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11997306?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Geelhoed GC. Croup. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1997;23:370-374.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9168511?tool=bestpractice.com
关于将氦氧混合气体(氦气和氧气比例明确的混合物)用作重度气道阻塞的辅助治疗,已经进行了研究。[82]Weber JE, Chudnofsky CR, Younger JG, et al. A randomized comparison of helium-oxygen mixture (Heliox) and racemic epinephrine for the treatment of moderate to severe croup. Pediatrics. 2001;107:E96.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/6/e96http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11389294?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Terregino CA, Nairn SJ, Chansky ME, et al. The effect of Heliox on croup: a pilot study. Acad Emerg Med. 1998;5:1130-1133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9835482?tool=bestpractice.com 氦气是一种惰性气体,药学特性未明。氦氧混合气体通常包含 70% 的氦,氧气浓度限制在 30% 以内。与氮气相比(空气中的主要气体),低密度的氦氧混合气体能减少穿过狭窄气道的气流湍流,理论上,应能减少呼吸做功。但是,还未能证明氦氧混合气体优于标准治疗方案,[93]Moraa I, Sturman N, McGuire T, et al. Heliox for croup in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(12):CD006822.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006822.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24318607?tool=bestpractice.com证据 B症状改善:来自小型随机对照试验(纳入 29 名患中度至重度哮吼的儿童,)的中等质量证据显示,在给予肌内注射地塞米松和吸氧治疗的情况下,应用氦氧混合气与消旋肾上腺素能使临床哮吼评分、氧饱和度、心率和呼吸频率有相似程度的改善。[82]Weber JE, Chudnofsky CR, Younger JG, et al. A randomized comparison of helium-oxygen mixture (Heliox) and racemic epinephrine for the treatment of moderate to severe croup. Pediatrics. 2001;107:E96.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/6/e96http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11389294?tool=bestpractice.com 第 2 项关于 15 名患轻度哮吼的儿童的小型随机对照试验发现,两个治疗组间的哮吼评分并没有显著差异(明显改善)。[92]Terregino CA, Nairn SJ, Chansky ME, et al. The effect of Heliox on croup: a pilot study. Acad Emerg Med. 1998;5:1130-1133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9835482?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 该气体限制吸入氧气的浓度,而且对于操作不熟练者而言存在困难。[82]Weber JE, Chudnofsky CR, Younger JG, et al. A randomized comparison of helium-oxygen mixture (Heliox) and racemic epinephrine for the treatment of moderate to severe croup. Pediatrics. 2001;107:E96.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/107/6/e96http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11389294?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Terregino CA, Nairn SJ, Chansky ME, et al. The effect of Heliox on croup: a pilot study. Acad Emerg Med. 1998;5:1130-1133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9835482?tool=bestpractice.com[94]Gupta VK, Cheifetz IM. Heliox administration in the pediatric intensive care unit: an evidence-based review. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2005;6:204-211.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15730610?tool=bestpractice.com[95]Kemper KJ, Ritz RH, Benson MS, et al. Helium-oxygen mixture in the treatment of postextubation stridor in pediatric trauma patients. Crit Care Med. 1991;19:356-359.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1999097?tool=bestpractice.com[96]Duncan PG. Efficacy of helium-oxygen mixtures in the management of severe viral and post-intubation croup. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1979;26:206-212.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/466564?tool=bestpractice.com[97]Beckmann KR, Brueggemann WM Jr. Heliox treatment of severe croup. Am J Emerg Med. 2000;18:735-736.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11043633?tool=bestpractice.com[98]McGee DL, Wald DA, Hinchliffe S. Helium-oxygen therapy in the emergency department. J Emerg Med. 1997;15:291-296.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9258776?tool=bestpractice.com[99]DiCecco RJ, Rega PP. The application of heliox in the management of croup by an air ambulance service. Air Med J. 2004;23:33-35.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15014397?tool=bestpractice.com 目前暂不推荐用于严重哮吼患儿。
气管造口术是一种罕见的干预,仅用于气管插管失败的病例(例如严重会厌炎),但不适用于哮吼患者。其并发症包括出血、颈部周围组织损伤、漏气(纵隔积气或气胸)、气管切开套管堵塞、感染和气管损伤。
使用此内容应接受我们的免责声明。
BMJ临床实践的持续改进离不开您的帮助和反馈。如果您发现任何功能问题和内容错误,或您对BMJ临床实践有任何疑问或建议,请您扫描右侧二维码并根据页面指导填写您的反馈和联系信息*。一旦您的建议在我们核实后被采纳,您将会收到一份小礼品。
如果您有紧急问题需要我们帮助,请您联系我们。
邮箱:bmjchina.support@bmj.com
电话:+86 10 64100686-612
*您的联系信息仅会用于我们与您确认反馈信息和礼品事宜。
BMJ临床实践官方反馈平台