激素:患者可能存在睾酮、苗勒管抑制物质、胰岛素样激素 3 或其受体 LGR8、表皮生长因子和/或雌激素通道/信号传导异常。[8]Ivell R, Hartung S. The molecular basis of cryptorchidism. Mol Hum Reprod. 2003 Apr;9(4):175-81.https://academic.oup.com/molehr/article/9/4/175/1080715http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12651898?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Verkauskas G, Malcius D, Eidukaite A, et al. Prospective study of histological and endocrine parameters of gonadal function in boys with cryptorchidism. J Pediatr Urol. 2016 Aug;12(4):238.e1-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27321556?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Hutson JM, Lopez-Marambio FA. The possible role of AMH in shortening the gubernacular cord in testicular descent: a reappraisal of the evidence. J Pediatr Surg. 2017 Oct;52(10):1656-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28599968?tool=bestpractice.com
环境或母体毒素:有机氯、环境雌激素、邻苯二甲酸酯和杀虫药都被认为与隐睾症风险增加有联系,尽管目前的文献尚无定论。[3]Brucker-Davis F, Pointis G, Chevallier D, et al. Update on cryptorchidism: endocrine, environmental and therapeutic aspects. J Endocrinol Invest. 2003 Jun;26(6):575-87.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952375?tool=bestpractice.com[7]Vidaeff AC, Sever LE. In utero exposure to environmental estrogens and male reproductive health: a systematic review of biological and epidemiologic evidence. Reprod Toxicol. 2005 May-Jun;20(1):5-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15808781?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Damgaard IN, Skakkebaek NE, Toppari J, et al. Persistent pesticides in human breast milk and cryptorchidism. Environ Health Perspect. 2006 Jul;114(7):1133-8.https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/ehp.8741http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16835070?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Fratrić I, Varga J, Vukmirović S, et al. Cryptorchidism and pesticides: Is there a connection? J Pediatr Surg. 2017 Jul;52(7):1166-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27956069?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Goodyer CG, Poon S, Aleksa K, et al. A case-control study of maternal polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposure and cryptorchidism in Canadian populations. Environ Health Perspect. 2017 May 26;125(5):057004.https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/EHP522http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28557710?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Sathyanarayana S, Grady R, Barrett ES, et al. First trimester phthalate exposure and male newborn genital anomalies. Environ Res. 2016 Nov;151:777-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27567446?tool=bestpractice.com
母亲饮酒、[15]Mongraw-Chaffin ML, Cohn BA, Cohen RD, et al. Maternal smoking, alcohol consumption, and caffeine consumption during pregnancy in relation to a son's risk of persistent cryptorchidism: a prospective study in the Child Health and Development Studies cohort, 1959-1967. Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Feb 1;167(3):257-61.https://academic.oup.com/aje/article/167/3/257/132230http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024986?tool=bestpractice.com 服用镇痛药、[16]Jensen MS, Rebordosa C, Thulstrup AM, et al. Maternal use of acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and acetylsalicylic acid during pregnancy and risk of cryptorchidism. Epidemiology. 2010 Nov;21(6):779-85.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20805751?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Philippat C, Giorgis-Allemand L, Chevrier C, et al. Analgesics during pregnancy and undescended testis. Epidemiology. 2011 Sep;22(5):747-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21811116?tool=bestpractice.com 以及吸烟[15]Mongraw-Chaffin ML, Cohn BA, Cohen RD, et al. Maternal smoking, alcohol consumption, and caffeine consumption during pregnancy in relation to a son's risk of persistent cryptorchidism: a prospective study in the Child Health and Development Studies cohort, 1959-1967. Am J Epidemiol. 2008 Feb 1;167(3):257-61.https://academic.oup.com/aje/article/167/3/257/132230http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024986?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Hackshaw A, Rodeck C, Boniface S. Maternal smoking in pregnancy and birth defects: a systematic review based on 173 687 malformed cases and 11.7 million controls. Hum Reprod Update. 2011 Sep-Oct;17(5):589-604.https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/17/5/589/760093http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21747128?tool=bestpractice.com 也可导致风险增加,但这些数据存在冲突。[19]Damgaard IN, Jensen TK, Petersen JH, et al. Cryptorchidism and maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect. 2007 Feb;115(2):272-7.https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/ehp.9608http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17384777?tool=bestpractice.com
妊娠期糖尿病和/或肥胖可能与隐睾症的发生有关。[19]Damgaard IN, Jensen TK, Petersen JH, et al. Cryptorchidism and maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect. 2007 Feb;115(2):272-7.https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/full/10.1289/ehp.9608http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17384777?tool=bestpractice.com
遗传:高达 23% 的病例伴有家族聚集性,表明这些患者的病因是潜在的基因突变。[20]Carragher AM, McLean RD. Familial bilateral cryptorchidism. Br J Clin Pract. 1990 Dec;44(12):688-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1983232?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Elert A, Jahn K, Heidenreich A, et al. The familial undescended testis [in German]. Klin Padiatr. 2003 Jan-Feb;215(1):40-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12545425?tool=bestpractice.com 特异性突变包括累及胰岛素样因子 3 及其受体 LGR8[22]Ferlin A, Bogatcheva NV, Gianesello L, et al. Insulin-like factor 3 gene mutations in testicular dysgenesis syndrome: clinical and functional characterization. Mol Hum Reprod. 2006 Jun;12(6):401-6.https://academic.oup.com/molehr/article/12/6/401/1044750http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16687567?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Feng S, Cortessis V, Hwang A, et al. Mutation analysis of INSL3 and GREAT/LGR8 genes in familial cryptorchidism. Urology. 2004 Nov;64(5):1032-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15533513?tool=bestpractice.com 和雄激素受体基因中的 CAG/GGC 的重复数目。[24]Wang Y, Wei Y, Tang X, et al. Association between androgen receptor polymorphic CAG and GGC repeat lengths and cryptorchidism: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. J Pediatr Urol. 2018 Jun 7;14(5):432.e1-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29914823?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Wang Q, Ge X, Wang HX, et al. Association of androgen receptor gene CAG and GGN repeat polymorphism with cryptorchidism: a meta-analysis. Andrologia. 2017 Oct 18;50(3):e12909.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29044734?tool=bestpractice.com
机械性:也有假设认为睾丸引带的发育问题、[10]Hutson JM, Lopez-Marambio FA. The possible role of AMH in shortening the gubernacular cord in testicular descent: a reappraisal of the evidence. J Pediatr Surg. 2017 Oct;52(10):1656-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28599968?tool=bestpractice.com 提睾肌纤维发育的问题、[26]Lie G, Hutson JM. The role of cremaster muscle in testicular descent in humans and animal models. Pediatr Surg Int. 2011 Dec;27(12):1255-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22038274?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Arena S, Favaloro A, La Face A, et al. Altered integrins expression of patients affected by cryptorchidism. Urol Int. 2018 Aug 8;101(2):219-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30089289?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Favorito LA, Anderson KM, Costa SF, et al. Structural study of the cremaster muscle in patients with retractile testis. J Pediatr Surg. 2017 Apr 28;53(4):780-3.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28495418?tool=bestpractice.com 也有假设认为开放性鞘突或腹内压受损可引起隐睾症。
神经肌肉:根据推测,生殖股神经的降钙素基因相关肽或提睾肌核异常可引起隐睾症。[29]Hutson JM, Hasthorpe S. Abnormalities of testicular descent. Cell Tissue Res. 2005 Oct;322(1):155-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15965656?tool=bestpractice.com