胃食管反流病 (GORD)
对于患有轻度到中度反流并且没有其他症状的婴儿,无需治疗,可安慰看护者,症状会随时间推移而改善。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com[46]Vandenplas Y, Ashkenazi A, Belli D, et al. A proposition for the diagnosis and treatment of gastro-esophageal reflux disease in children. Working Group of the European Society of Paediatric Gastro-enterology and Nutrition (ESPGAN) Eur J Pediatr. 1993;152:704-711.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8223796?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Aggett PJ, Agostoni C, Goulet O, et al. Anti-reflux or antiregurgitation milk products for infants and young children: a commentary by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;34:496-498.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12050572?tool=bestpractice.com应当告知父母,如果存在以下情况,则需要就医:呕吐呈喷射状、有胆汁染色或为血性、出现新的问题(如痛苦或生长不良)或呕吐在一岁后仍然持续存在。母乳喂养的婴儿,如果频繁反流伴有明显痛苦,应当考虑转诊进行母乳喂养评估。配方奶粉喂养的婴儿,如果喂养量超过婴儿体重所匹配的量,应当减少喂养量;应当考虑尝试较少量、更频繁的喂养。[37]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in children and young people: diagnosis and management. January 2015. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng1
如果持续呕吐,婴儿和儿童 GORD 症状的严重性:低质量的证据表明,与未增稠的食物相比,食物增稠剂在控制 4 周龄患儿反流和呕吐方面更为有效,在降低 1 至 5 月龄患儿呛咳反流方面更为有效。低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。可尝试食物增稠剂[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com和抗反流 (AR) 配方奶粉,并建议喂养后保持直立位和需要避免过量喂养。增稠剂和 AR 配方食物可降低呕吐频率和呕吐量,但增稠后的食物可能需要使用大孔径奶嘴,当长期运用时,这可导致超重。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com不同类型食物增稠剂(米糊、角豆胶、角豆粉、羧甲基纤维素钠)之间的效力没有显著差别。[52]Horvath A, Dziechciarz P, Szajewska H. The effect of thickened-feed interventions on gastroesophageal reflux in infants: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e1268-e1277. [Erratum in: Pediatrics. 2009;123:1254.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19001038?tool=bestpractice.com抗反流配方食物具有提供更适合婴儿需求的能量摄入的益处,仅需较少的吮吸力,因此无需使用大孔径奶嘴。
有证据支持为患有持续呕吐的婴儿提供 2~4 周深度水解蛋白配方食物的试验,因为可能无法将牛奶蛋白过敏的症状与胃食管反流的症状进行区分。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com
复合海藻酸盐制备(海藻酸钠/海藻酸镁)可用于(并已在欧洲广泛使用)婴儿,两者都能增加食物稠密度,并可作为“筏”飘在胃内容物表面以减少反流并保护食管黏膜。使用海藻酸盐之前,应当停用食物增稠剂,避免胃内容物过度粘稠。
俯卧和左侧卧体位可减少反流发作,但是应仅限于婴儿已睡醒且有人紧密照看的情况下使用,以免与俯卧体位相关的婴儿猝死综合征 (SIDS) 的风险增加。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Corvaglia L, Rotatori R, Ferlini M, et al. The effect of body positioning on gastroesophageal reflux in premature infants: evaluation by combined impedance and pH monitoring. J Pediatr. 2007;151:591-596.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18035136?tool=bestpractice.com 在某些病例中,喂养后保持更为直立的体位可能会有所帮助,但是目前还缺乏强有力的证据基础。
如果经上述措施后,仍然持续存在显著的 GORD 症状,则可考虑 H2 拮抗剂等抑酸剂(例如雷尼替丁)和质子泵抑制剂(PPI;例如奥美拉唑)。这些药物应当避免用于单纯性呕吐的婴儿。如果呕吐伴有体重不增加、痛苦或喂养困难,可以考虑尝试使用此两类药物中任一类 2-4 周。应当评估疗效,如果症状没有消退或在终止治疗后复发,应当考虑转诊到专科医生进行内窥镜检查。这些药物的疗效证据不足,有严重的副作用,需要与可感知到的益处相权衡。在返流性食管炎婴儿中,PPI 可能有用。[37]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in children and young people: diagnosis and management. January 2015. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng1[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com
可刺激胃排空和小肠转运的蠕动促进剂(例如,西沙必利、甲氧氯普胺、多潘立酮)具有显著的副作用,这限制了它们的使用。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com一项关于多潘立酮的欧洲综述发现其存在引发严重心脏不良反应(例如成人的 QT 间期变长和心律失常)的风险小幅度增加。因此,不再建议将其用于烧心症状治疗。[54]European Medicines Agency. CMDh confirms recommendations on restricting use of domperidone-containing medicines. April 2014. http://www.ema.europa.eu/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/news_and_events/news/2014/04/news_detail_002083.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058004d5c1没有在婴儿中使用多潘立酮的证据。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com与此情况类似,某些国家/地区因西沙必利与 QT 间期延长相关而不再提供该药品。[55]Maclennan S, Augood C, Cash-Gibson L, et al. Cisapride treatment for gastro-oesophageal reflux in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(4):CD002300.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002300.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20393933?tool=bestpractice.com甲氧氯普胺可减少日常症状,但会带来很多不良反应,大多数不良反应具有严重的锥体外性。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com
呕吐和体重不增长的婴儿,如果已经排除其他原因,并且药物治疗不成功,应当考虑肠内管饲,促使体重增加。空肠饲喂可用于有反流相关误吸的婴儿。[37]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in children and young people: diagnosis and management. January 2015. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng1
GORD 的手术治疗较为少见,它通常仅可用于在严重反流并发误吸的内科方法治疗失败或有明显的威胁生命的事件的患者。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Kane TD, Brown MF, Chen MK, et al. Position paper on laparoscopic antireflux operations in infants and children for gastroesophageal reflux disease. American Pediatric Surgery Association. J Pediatr Surg. 2009;44:1034-1040.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433194?tool=bestpractice.com[57]IPEG Standard and Safety Committee. IPEG guidelines for the surgical treatment of pediatric gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 2009;19:x-xiii.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19226225?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,尚不清楚该类别患者的风险与获益比值。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com在一家大型欧洲中心,一系列转诊前来征询顾问医生意见的儿童中,17% 的严重 GORD 患儿接受了 Nissen 胃底折叠术。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫性疾病
在生理性疾病(例如 GORD)和免疫性疾病(例如牛奶蛋白过敏 (CMPA))之间存在许多症状重叠。因此,对其中任一病症的诊断通常都基于治疗和反应的务实方法。如果患有 GORD 的婴儿在服用抗反流药物后没有好转,尤其是具有过敏症或 CMPA 家族史的患儿,则应做 2~6 周的饮食调整,作为 CMPA 的诊断试验。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com患有 CMPA 的婴儿会在 1~2 周内对低过敏原配方有反应。[51]Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2009;49:498-547.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2009/10000/Pediatric_Gastroesophageal_Reflux_Clinical.22.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19745761?tool=bestpractice.com与此相反,如果怀疑患有 CMPA,但是在采用调整后的食谱后,症状没有改善,则应考虑 GORD 治疗。在采用母乳喂养的母亲饮食中去除可能存在的变应原方面,现有的支持证据之间存在冲突;因此,不应将母亲食谱的日常调整视为治疗选项,但可向母亲提供需避免的食物建议。[20]Vandenplas Y, Koletzko S, Isolauri E, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of cows' milk protein allergy in infants. Arch Dis Child. 2007;97:902-908. [Errata in: Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:908; Arch Dis Child. 2008;93:93.]http://adc.bmj.com/content/92/10/902.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17895338?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Hill DJ, Roy N, Heine RG, et al. Effect of a low-allergen maternal diet on colic among breastfed infants: a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2005;116:e709-e715.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/116/5/e709.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16263986?tool=bestpractice.com[59]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Food allergy in under 19s: assessment and diagnosis. CG116. February 2011. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg116/ (last accessed 2 August 2017).https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg116/ 当怀疑患有 CMPA 时,不应使用基于大豆蛋白的配方奶,因为高达 10% 的 CMPA 患儿对大豆也同样敏感。[15]Bhatia J, Greer F; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Use of soy protein-based formulas in infant feeding. Pediatrics. 2008;121:1062-1068.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/121/5/1062.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18450914?tool=bestpractice.com对于乳糜泻患儿,建议终生避免食麸质食品。
患半乳糖血症的新生儿和婴儿需要做终生的饮食调整,以避免乳糖和半乳糖食物。在治疗患半乳糖血症或乳糖不耐受症的婴儿时,可安全使用基于大豆蛋白的配方食物。[15]Bhatia J, Greer F; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Use of soy protein-based formulas in infant feeding. Pediatrics. 2008;121:1062-1068.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/121/5/1062.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18450914?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Agostoni C, Axelsson I, Goulet O, et al. Soy protein infant formulae and follow-on formulae: a commentary by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2006;42:352-361.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16641572?tool=bestpractice.com 乳糖不耐受可能是原发性疾病,要求终生的饮食调整。继发性乳糖不耐受通常是消化道病毒感染后的短暂现象,短期使用低乳糖或无乳糖配方的食物 6-8 周可帮助缓解症状。对于继发性乳糖不耐受的 6 个月以下婴儿不应食用大豆配方奶粉,因为大豆配方奶粉中含有植物雌激素,但无法耐受无乳糖配方食物的 6 个月以上婴儿可以食用。[61]PrescQIPP. Appropriate prescribing of specialist infant formulae (foods for special medical purposes). November 2016. https://www.prescqipp.info/ (last accessed 2 August 2017).https://www.prescqipp.info/infant-feeds/send/93-infant-feeds/3141-bulletin-146-infant-feeds一旦症状完全消除,应尝试恢复正常喂养。
神经发育、神经肌肉和神经系统障碍
严重残疾的儿童患喂养障碍和营养不良的风险最高。[27]Infante Pina D, Badia Llach X, Arino-Armengol B, et al. Prevalence and dietetic management of mild gastrointestinal disorders in milk-fed infants. World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14:248-254.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18186563?tool=bestpractice.com治疗必须与个人的功能发育水平(而非他们的生理年龄)相适应。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com
如果神经方面受损的儿童吞咽受损或喂养时间太长,则他们可能需要经鼻胃管或胃造瘘术喂养。[43]Puntis JW. Specialist feeding clinics. Arch Dis Child. 2008;93:164-167.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17804595?tool=bestpractice.com虽然管饲可能增加体重,但是,如果在童年中期之前,营养干预延迟,则线性增长可能会欠佳。[38]Schwarz SM, Corredor J, Fisher-Medina J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of feeding disorders in children with developmental difficulties. Pediatrics. 2001;108:671-676.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11533334?tool=bestpractice.com这为及早识别和治疗这些自婴儿期就已存在的问题提供了支持。
GORD 是患有神经发育障碍的儿童中常见的问题,在使用 PPI儿童 GORD 症状的严重性:低至中等质量的证据表明,与安慰剂相比,质子泵抑制剂在改善症状方面更有效。低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。 和 H2 拮抗剂前,应采用食物增稠剂、抗反流配方食品和复合海藻酸盐进行初始治疗。儿童 GORD 症状的严重性:低质量的证据表明,与安慰剂相比,H2 拮抗剂在改善症状方面更有效。低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。对于患有不耐受医学治疗的严重反流并且具有潜在威胁生命的并发症(例如误吸)的儿童,可提示进行胃底折叠术。[38]Schwarz SM, Corredor J, Fisher-Medina J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of feeding disorders in children with developmental difficulties. Pediatrics. 2001;108:671-676.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11533334?tool=bestpractice.com
患神经功能缺损的婴儿中,可能存在流涎和分泌量增加的问题,经皮东莨菪碱给药试验可能有效。经皮东莨菪碱给药疗法尚未在新生儿中获得证实;因此,没有针对该年龄组提供用药剂量。因此,在新生儿中使用此药物,将有赖于医生自身的标准和经验。
行为问题
家长安慰、教育和培训构成了管理治疗的关键部分。但是,医护人员应意识到行为问题的诊断对婴儿与看护者的互动所可能带来的损害性影响。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com
一般性建议包括提倡在出生后的前 6 个月尽可能进行母乳喂养、提供食物时加以控制(营养品质和分量)、引入健康食品并在婴儿拒绝这些食品时加以坚持、回应饱腹感,以及避免过量喂养并在用餐时鼓励积极的行为。[1]Milnes SM, Piazza CC, Carroll-Hernandez TA. Assessment and treatment of pediatric feeding disorders. Encyclopedia on early childhood development. March 2004. http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/textes-experts/en/535/assessment-and-treatment-of-pediatric-feeding-disorders.pdf[62]Gidding SS, Dennison BA, Birch LL, et al; American Heart Association. Dietary recommendations for children and adolescents: a guide for practitioners. Pediatrics. 2006;117:544-559.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/117/2/544.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16452380?tool=bestpractice.com
应教育看护者如何回应婴儿需要喂养的征兆,在喂养期间尽量减少令注意力转移的刺激,并制定系统的喂养习惯。[3]Bernard-Bonnin AC. Feeding problems of infants and toddlers. Can Fam Physician. 2006;52:1247-1251.http://www.cfp.ca/content/52/10/1247.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17279184?tool=bestpractice.com食物厌恶的治疗着重于通过提供积极反馈来强化进食渴望行为,并通过忽略厌恶行为来尽量消除此类行为。[3]Bernard-Bonnin AC. Feeding problems of infants and toddlers. Can Fam Physician. 2006;52:1247-1251.http://www.cfp.ca/content/52/10/1247.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17279184?tool=bestpractice.com在严重病例中,可能需要入院治疗以观察婴儿与看护者的互动情况,同时优化每项医务治疗。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com