婴儿喂养障碍的预后取决于其病因。大多数障碍在性质上存在多种因素,最好由多学科团队进行治疗,这有可能包括安排儿科医生负责一般性和神经发育评估,安排儿科肠胃病医师、营养师、行为心理医生、言语和语言治疗师以及职业病治疗师。[7]Manikam R, Perman JA. Pediatric feeding disorders. J Clin Gastroenterol. 2000;30:34-46.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10636208?tool=bestpractice.com欧洲研究组支持跨学科方法,据其报告,在 2~5 年的随访后,他们发现 73% 的患者(其中有半数患者在未满 1 岁时转诊)均可通过团队干预来治疗。[2]Rommel N, De Meyer AM, Feenstra L, et al. The complexity of feeding problems in 700 infants and young children presenting to a tertiary care institution. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2003;37:75-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12827010?tool=bestpractice.com
生理学异常
在大多数神经发育正常的婴儿中,GORD 倾向于自发缓解;在意大利开展的研究中,88% 的随访婴儿的情况在 12 个月内得以改善。[28]Campanozzi A, Boccia G, Pensabene L, et al. Prevalence and natural history of gastroesophageal reflux: pediatric prospective survey. Pediatrics. 2009;123:779-783.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19255002?tool=bestpractice.com如果症状在 24 个月内未改善,则建议进行重新评估。[25]Rudolph CD, Mazur LJ, Liptak GS, et al. Guidelines for evaluation and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux in infants and children: recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2001;32(suppl 2):S1-S31.http://journals.lww.com/jpgn/Fulltext/2001/00002/Guidelines_for_Evaluation_and_Treatment_of.1.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11525610?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Nelson SP, Chen EH, Syniar GM, et al. One-year follow-up of symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux during infancy. Pediatrics. 1998;102:e67.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/102/6/e67.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9832595?tool=bestpractice.com但是,有一项研究发现,虽然经常反食的 6 月龄婴儿在长到 18 月龄时就不会出现此情况,但是与未患婴儿反流的对照组相比,拒食现象会更为常见(比值比 4.2)。[45]Nelson SP, Chen EH, Syniar GM, et al. One-year follow-up of symptoms of gastroesophageal reflux during infancy. Pediatrics. 1998;102:e67.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/102/6/e67.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9832595?tool=bestpractice.comGORD 症状的严重性与之后的儿童期内拒食程度向来无关。[64]Dellert SF, Hyams JS, Treem WR, et al. Feeding resistance and gastroesophageal reflux in infancy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1993;17:66-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8350213?tool=bestpractice.com当症状持续 18 个月以上时,婴儿更有可能出现与成人一样的 GORD 症状。
在年龄大些的儿童中开展的研究发现,在服用 12 周奥美拉唑后,92% 的患者的中度 GORD 症状获得改善。[10]Gremse DA. GERD in the pediatric patient: management considerations. MedGenMed. 2004;6:13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1395762/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15266239?tool=bestpractice.com对雷尼替丁无反应的患儿,奥美拉唑可缓解症状。[10]Gremse DA. GERD in the pediatric patient: management considerations. MedGenMed. 2004;6:13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1395762/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15266239?tool=bestpractice.com有关婴儿群体中维持抑酸疗法的必要性,目前证据有限。
在 1 岁以下婴儿中,通常不考虑手术,因为 GORD 的自然病程会在前 18 个月内随时间推移而好转。在病情确实发展到需手术程度的儿童中,已知的症状缓解率从 57% 至 92% 不等,已知的死亡率从 0% 至 4.7% 不等(通常因基础疾病情况不同而变化)。[10]Gremse DA. GERD in the pediatric patient: management considerations. MedGenMed. 2004;6:13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1395762/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15266239?tool=bestpractice.com
解剖学异常
虽然外科矫正后可能需要多学科团队长期随访,以监测可能会随婴儿的成长和发育而出现的问题,但是外科矫正术的预后普遍良好。[40]Bessell A, Hooper L, Shaw WC, et al. Feeding interventions for growth and development in infants with cleft lip, cleft palate or cleft lip and palate. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(2):CD003315.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003315.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21328261?tool=bestpractice.com根据接受手术的年龄,婴儿还可能会出现需要干预介入的行为问题。
在原发性问题的外科修补术后,会出现某些并发症(例如 GORD、狭窄和瘘形成)。[23]Kovesi T, Rubin S. Long-term complications of congenital esophageal atresia and/or tracheoesophageal fistula. Chest. 2004;126:915-925.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15364774?tool=bestpractice.com
短肠综合征是肠道切除术的并发症(在坏死性小肠结肠炎后最为常见),与吸收不良和线性生长欠佳相关。与保守治疗坏死性小肠结肠炎的婴儿相比,这些术后婴儿在18 月龄需要管饲和反复入院的风险要高得多。[24]Cole CR, Hansen NI, Higgins RD, et al. Very low birth weight preterm infants with surgical short bowel syndrome: incidence, morbidity and mortality, and growth outcomes at 18 to 22 months. Pediatrics. 2008;122:e573-e582.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2848527/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18762491?tool=bestpractice.com
神经发育、神经以及神经肌肉异常
获得口舌运动技能的正常发育有一些时间关键性的窗口期。例如,正常发育的儿童群体中,通常在约 6 月龄时引入固体辅食;如果在 10 月龄后引入固体辅食,拒食就会更为普遍。[9]Arvedson JC. Assessment of pediatric dysphagia and feeding disorders: clinical and instrumental approaches. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:118-127.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646015?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Delaney AL, Arvedson JC. Development of swallowing and feeding: prenatal through first year of life. Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2008;14:105-117.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18646020?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Emond A, Drewett R, Blair P, et al. Postnatal factors associated with failure to thrive in term infants in the Avon longitudinal study of parents and children. Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:115-119.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16905563?tool=bestpractice.com
当婴儿具有严重的神经发育延迟时,早期营养干预有助于重量和线性增长。[38]Schwarz SM, Corredor J, Fisher-Medina J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of feeding disorders in children with developmental difficulties. Pediatrics. 2001;108:671-676.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11533334?tool=bestpractice.com生活质量评估显示患者和家庭对营养干预都做出了很好的反应。[38]Schwarz SM, Corredor J, Fisher-Medina J, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of feeding disorders in children with developmental difficulties. Pediatrics. 2001;108:671-676.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11533334?tool=bestpractice.com
免疫学异常
牛奶蛋白过敏往往在幼年时期即会消退,1 岁儿童中有 45% 会出现对牛奶蛋白耐受,2 岁儿童中为 60%,而在 3 岁儿童中为 85%。[14]Salvatore S, Vandenplas Y. Gastroesophageal reflux and cow milk allergy: is there a link? Pediatrics. 2002;110:972-984.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12415039?tool=bestpractice.com与牛奶蛋白放射变应原吸附试验结果阴性的过敏症儿童相比,该项结果为阳性的过敏症儿童将需要更长时间才会耐受。[20]Vandenplas Y, Koletzko S, Isolauri E, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of cows' milk protein allergy in infants. Arch Dis Child. 2007;97:902-908. [Errata in: Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:908; Arch Dis Child. 2008;93:93.]http://adc.bmj.com/content/92/10/902.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17895338?tool=bestpractice.com1 至 2 岁后,在儿科医师监督下,通常可以中断限制性饮食。乳糜泻等障碍具有终生性,但是对限制饮食的反应良好。
行为性疾病
在没有专业人员意见的情况下,在 67% 的儿童中,许多看护者用来鼓励进食的行为(例如提供偏爱的食物,当儿童拒绝进食时无意识地对儿童给予更多关注),实际上会强化儿童的负面行为。[1]Milnes SM, Piazza CC, Carroll-Hernandez TA. Assessment and treatment of pediatric feeding disorders. Encyclopedia on early childhood development. March 2004. http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/ (last accessed 5 July 2017).http://www.child-encyclopedia.com/sites/default/files/textes-experts/en/535/assessment-and-treatment-of-pediatric-feeding-disorders.pdf