有假说提出,抽搐性运动障碍是由基底神经节障碍导致动作和边缘系统去抑制化造成。 这一假说得到许多神经影像学和动物研究的支持,该假说表明,Tourette 综合征的病理生理涉及原发性动作、继发性动作和皮层到基底神经节躯体感觉的反射机制。[17]Shavitt RG, Hounie AG, Rosario Campos MC, et al. Tourette's syndrome. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2006 Jun;29(2):471-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16650718?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Nespoli E, Rizzo F, Boeckers TM, et al. Addressing the complexity of Tourette's syndrome through the use of animal models. Front Neurosci. 2016 Apr 8;10:133.http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnins.2016.00133/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27092043?tool=bestpractice.com 小鼠模型的临床前研究显示了 Tourette 综合征存在小胶质细胞失调的证据。[19]Frick L, Pittenger C. Microglial dysregulation in OCD, Tourette syndrome, and PANDAS. J Immunol Res. 2016;2016:8606057.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5174185/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28053994?tool=bestpractice.com
抽搐类型似乎由纹状体对应的躯体组织中的局灶性去抑制部位决定,而皮质激活似乎决定了个体抽搐的时间。[20]Israelashvili M, Bar-Gad I. Corticostriatal divergent function in determining the temporal and spatial properties of motor tics. J Neurosci. 2015 Dec 16;35(50):16340-51.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4679818/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26674861?tool=bestpractice.com 成人 Tourette 综合征中,可见皮质 - 纹状体 - 苍白球 - 丘脑白质通路结构异常。 此外,皮质 - 纹状体、丘脑 - 皮层和丘脑 - 壳核通路异常均与抽搐严重程度成正相关。[21]Worbe Y, Marrakchi-Kacem L, Lecomte S, et al. Altered structural connectivity of cortico-striato-pallido-thalamic networks in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Brain. 2015 Feb;138(Pt 2):472-82.http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/content/138/2/472.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25392196?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Zapparoli L, Porta M, Gandola M, et al. A functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of motor control in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome during imagined and executed movements. Eur J Neurosci. 2016 Feb;43(4):494-508.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26566185?tool=bestpractice.com 几项磁共振成像 (MRI) 脑容积检查发现,重度抽搐患者常出现感觉运动皮层变薄和尾状核减小。[23]Plessen KJ, Bansal R, Peterson BS. Imaging evidence for anatomical disturbances and neuroplastic compensation in persons with Tourette syndrome. J Psychosom Res. 2009 Dec;67(6):559-73.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4283588/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19913660?tool=bestpractice.com Tourette 综合征患儿的 MRI 表现包括眼眶和内侧前额叶皮质双侧白质体积较小,后丘脑、下丘脑、中脑的灰质体积较大。[24]Greene DJ, Williams Iii AC, Koller JM, et al. Brain structure in pediatric Tourette syndrome. Mol Psychiatry. 2017 Jul;22(7):972-80.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5405013/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27777415?tool=bestpractice.com功能性 MRI 数据表明,皮质下传入至初级运动皮层异常和前运动皮层的输入之间的关系可能与疾病的严重程度有关。[25]Zapparoli L, Tettamanti M, Porta M, et al. A tug of war: antagonistic effective connectivity patterns over the motor cortex and the severity of motor symptoms in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Eur J Neurosci. 2017 Sep;46(6):2203-13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28833746?tool=bestpractice.com
Tourette 综合征中皮质-纹状体-丘脑-皮质环路功能障碍似乎涉及一系列不同的神经递质,包括多巴胺、去甲肾上腺素、5-羟色胺、组胺、γ-氨基丁酸、谷氨酰胺、乙酰胆碱等。[26]Fernandez TV, Sanders SJ, Yurkiewicz IR, et al. Rare copy number variants in Tourette syndrome disrupt genes in histaminergic pathways and overlap with autism. Biol Psychiatry. 2012 Mar 1;71(5):392-402.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3282144/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22169095?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Rapanelli M, Pittenger C. Histamine and histamine receptors in Tourette syndrome and other neuropsychiatric conditions. Neuropharmacology. 2016 Jul;106:85-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26282120?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Yang X, Liu W, Yi M, et al. Choline acetyltransferase may contribute to the risk of Tourette syndrome: combination of family-based analysis and case-control study. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2017 Feb 14:1-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28090804?tool=bestpractice.com
抽搐性运动障碍常见于多个家庭成员,说明这些疾病有遗传基础。但是,关于先前发现与抽动障碍有关的一些基因的作用,存在相互矛盾的数据。一项对 465 例慢性抽动障碍先证者(93% 患有 Tourette 综合征)和来自 412 个家庭的父母以及一些兄弟姐妹先证者进行的研究并未发现在这些人群中存在之前所涉及的神经递质相关候选基因的证据,其中所涉及的基因包括 DRD2、HDC、MAO-A、SLC6A3/DAT1、TPH2、COMT、GABRA2、SLC1A1 和 HRH3。此外,该研究未对以下方面提供支持:先前涉及的候选基因 BTBD9、CNTNAP2、DLGAP3、SLITRK1 和 TBCD 的单核苷酸多态性 (SNP);来自 Tourette 综合征和相关疾病的全基因组关联研究的前几个 SNP;来自 Tourette 综合征的第一个全基因组关联研究的前五个连锁不平衡非依赖性 SNP;或 SLITRK1 候选基因。[29]Abdulkadir M, Londono D, Gordon D, et al. Investigation of previously implicated genetic variants in chronic tic disorders: a transmission disequilibrium test approach. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2018 Apr;268(3):301-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5708161/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28555406?tool=bestpractice.com
许多研究者认为,Tourette 综合征可能不遵循单基因孟德尔遗传定律的遗传模式,而是由多个基因的相互作用导致。越来越多的证据表明,Tourette 综合征的遗传学机制较为复杂,并且可能与强迫症 (obsessive compulsive disorder, OCD) 和 ADHD 等其他精神疾病重叠。[30]Hirschtritt ME, Darrow SM, Illmann C, et al. Genetic and phenotypic overlap of specific obsessive-compulsive and attention-deficit/hyperactive subtypes with Tourette syndrome. Psychol Med. 2018 Jan;48(2):279-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28651666?tool=bestpractice.com研究还关注影响基因表达的潜在表观遗传因子。已改变的多巴胺能基因表观遗传调控似乎在 Tourette 综合征的病理生理学机制中发挥作用。有人提出,多巴胺能基因甲基化水平短期改变可能会导致抽动波动,这反过来又影响纹状体和丘脑-皮质输出途径中的强直和阶段性多巴胺能信号传导。[31]Müller-Vahl KR, Loeber G, Kotsiari A, et al. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome is associated with hypermethylation of the dopamine D2 receptor gene. J Psychiatr Res. 2017 Mar;86:1-8.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022395616306367?via%3Dihubhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27883923?tool=bestpractice.com
有假设认为,免疫机制对抽搐性运动障碍的病理生理也有影响。 母亲具有自身免疫性疾病史与后代 Tourette 综合征的高发病率有关,尤其是雄性后代。[32]Dalsgaard S, Waltoft BL, Leckman JF, et al. Maternal history of autoimmune disease and later development of Tourette syndrome in offspring. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2015 Jun;54(6):495-501.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26004665?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Murphy TK, Storch EA, Turner A, et al. Maternal history of autoimmune disease in children presenting with tics and/or obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Neuroimmunol. 2010 Dec 15;229(1-2):243-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2991439/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20864184?tool=bestpractice.com 发病情况也可能与个人免疫因素有关。此外,A 族链球菌暴露或感染已被证实与抽动障碍和 OCD 有关。[34]Cardona F, Orefici G. Group A streptococcal infections and tic disorders in an Italian pediatric population. J Pediatr. 2001 Jan;138(1):71-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11148515?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Wang HC, Lau CI, Lin CC, et al. Group A streptococcal infections are associated with increased risk of pediatric neuropsychiatric disorders: a Taiwanese population-based cohort study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016 Jul;77(7):e848-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27464318?tool=bestpractice.com这种疾病的特点是抽动障碍或 OCD,被称为链球菌感染相关性儿童自身免疫性神经精神障碍 (paediatric auto-immune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infections, PANDAS)。[15]Murphy TK, Kurlan R, Leckman J. The immunobiology of Tourette's disorder, pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus, and related disorders: a way forward. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2010 Aug;20(4):317-31.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4003464/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20807070?tool=bestpractice.com 为消除特异性病因(即链球菌感染),并关注症状的初期表现,PANDAS 标准已被修改。 扩大其范围后这一临床病症被称为“儿科急性发作性神经精神综合症”(PANS),因为越来越多的证据表明,个体的快速变化不仅与链球菌感染有关,还可能包括许多生理应激因子。[36]Swedo SE, Leckman JF, Rose NR. From research subgroup to clinical syndrome: modifying the PANDAS criteria to describe PANS (pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome). Pediatr Therapeut. 2012;2:113.http://omicsonline.org/from-research-subgroup-to-clinical-syndrome-modifying-the-pandas-criteria-to-describe-pans-pediatric-acute-onset-neuropsychiatric-syndrome-2161-0665.1000113.php?aid=4020 术语“儿童急性神经精神症状”(CANS) 也用来形容这种表型,通常由神经科医生使用,但其诊断范围更广泛,包括儿童和青少年急性发作的感染性、感染后、药物性、自体免疫性、代谢性、创伤性、精神性或其他因素相关的症状。 此外,PANS/CANS 的初步诊断标准中已经将抽搐删除。[36]Swedo SE, Leckman JF, Rose NR. From research subgroup to clinical syndrome: modifying the PANDAS criteria to describe PANS (pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndrome). Pediatr Therapeut. 2012;2:113.http://omicsonline.org/from-research-subgroup-to-clinical-syndrome-modifying-the-pandas-criteria-to-describe-pans-pediatric-acute-onset-neuropsychiatric-syndrome-2161-0665.1000113.php?aid=4020[37]Singer HS, Gilbert DL, Wolf DS, et al. Moving from PANDAS to CANS. J Pediatr. 2012 May;160(5):725-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22197466?tool=bestpractice.com