治疗方法具有多学科性,通常有多种模式。[57]Whittington C, Pennant M, Kendall T, et al. Practitioner review: treatments for Tourette syndrome in children and young people - a systematic review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2016 May 2 [Epub ahead of print].http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27132945?tool=bestpractice.com初步和必要步骤是对家庭、临床医生、教师和同伴进行关于症状和疾病病程的教育,以减少任何相关的耻辱感和苦恼。下一步是确定是否存在精神共病以及它们会对孩子在家、在校和与同伴在一起时的功能能力的影响程度。治疗的首要整体目标是改善患者的生活质量并支持积极的发育轨迹。需要谨记的是,与抽搐症相比,精神共病症状经常需要更多的注意和治疗。如果出现 ADHD、OCD、情绪或非 OCD 焦虑障碍,正确做法是转诊至儿童和青少年精神病医生进行进一步的评估和治疗。共病病症的治疗通常还可以减少抽搐。
只有在抽搐带来巨大痛苦或导致功能缺损时才治疗抽搐本身。许多儿童抽搐会在青春期后自动减弱或缓解。[3]Bloch MH, Peterson BS, Scahill L, et al. Adulthood outcome of tic and obsessive-compulsive symptom severity in children with Tourette syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160:65-69.http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/160/1/65http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16389213?tool=bestpractice.com应积极定期监测所有患者,尤其是从 6 岁至 15 岁的整个发育时期,这是抽搐最有可能的严重时期。如果需要治疗,循证认知行为方法(例如抽搐综合行为干预 [CBIT],包括逆转习惯治疗)[58]Piacentini J, Woods DW, Scahill L, et al. Behavior therapy for children with Tourette disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010;303:1929-1937.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2993317/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20483969?tool=bestpractice.com被认为是轻度至中度抽搐儿童患者的一线干预。只有当行为干预无效或不可用时才建议用药。[59]Verdellen C, van de Griendt J, Hartmann A, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part III: behavioural and psychosocial interventions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:197-207.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21445725?tool=bestpractice.com
习惯逆转训练是 CBIT 的主要组成部分,目前建议作为 TS 的一线治疗选择。这一类型的行为疗法于 1973 年首次引入,用于减少神经紧张习惯和抽搐。[60]Azrin NH, Nunn RG. Habit reversal: a method of eliminating nervous habits and tics. Behav Res Ther. 1973;11:619-628.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4777653?tool=bestpractice.com多年以来,许多报告已证明其有经验性益处,在所有用于管理 TS 的行为疗法中,习惯逆转的支持证据最多。近期研究显示,与支持性心理治疗相比,习惯逆转治疗可减轻抽搐的严重程度。生活质量和心理社会功能的改善可在 6 个月的随访期间保持稳定,也见于习惯逆转和支持性心理治疗。[61]Deckersbach T, Rauch S, Buhlmann U, et al. Habit reversal versus supportive psychotherapy in Tourette's disorder: a randomized controlled trial and predictors of treatment response. Behav Res Ther. 2006;44:1079-1090.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16259942?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Dutta N, Cavanna AE. The effectiveness of habit reversal therapy in the treatment of Tourette syndrome and other chronic tic disorders: a systematic review. Funct Neurol. 2013;28:7-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3812724/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23731910?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Hwang GC, Tillberg CS, Scahill L. Habit reversal training for children with Tourette syndrome: update and review. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Nurs. 2012;25:178-183.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23121140?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Jeon S, Walkup JT, Woods DW, et al. Detecting a clinically meaningful change in tic severity in Tourette syndrome: a comparison of three methods. Contemp Clin Trials. 2013;36:414-420.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24001701?tool=bestpractice.com[65]McGuire JF, Nyirabahizi E, Kircanski K, et al. A cluster analysis of tic symptoms in children and adults with Tourette syndrome: clinical correlates and treatment outcome. Psychiatry Res. 2013;210:1198-1204.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24144615?tool=bestpractice.com[66]McGuire JF, Piacentini J, Brennan EA, et al. A meta-analysis of behavior therapy for Tourette syndrome. J Psychiatr Res. 2014;50:106-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24398255?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Piacentini J, Woods DW, Scahill Ll, et al. Behavior therapy for children with Tourette disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2010;303:1929-1937.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2993317/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20483969?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Wilhelm S, Peterson AL, Piacentini J, et al. Randomized trial of behavior therapy for adults with Tourette syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69:795-803.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3772729/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22868933?tool=bestpractice.com暴露和反应预防也可能对 TS 有益。[59]Verdellen C, van de Griendt J, Hartmann A, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part III: behavioural and psychosocial interventions. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:197-207.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21445725?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Wile DJ, Pringsheim TM. Behavior therapy for Tourette syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Treat Options Neurol. 2013;15:385-395.http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/crdweb/ShowRecord.asp?LinkFrom=OAI&ID=12013025340#.U2JPYvldXTohttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23645295?tool=bestpractice.com其他行为疗法一般是辅助性治疗。[70]Frank M, Cavanna AE. Behavioural treatments for Tourette syndrome: an evidence-based review. Behav Neurol. 2013;27:105-117.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23187152?tool=bestpractice.com
同样的目标和评估及治疗方法也用于成人。成人可能会有更复杂的临床情形,包括精神障碍共病和并发症。
无 ADHD 或 OCD 的患者
一旦决定使用药物治疗,目前有许多药物可供选择。一般建议最低有效剂量的单药治疗,但是治疗必须因人制宜。[71]Roessner V, Plessen KJ, Rothenberger A, et al; European Society for the Study of Tourette Syndrome (ESSTS) Guidelines Group. European clinical guidelines for Tourette syndrome and other tic disorders. Part II: pharmacological treatment. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;20:173-196.http://rd.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00787-011-0163-7/fulltext.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21445724?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Waldon K, Hill J, Termine C, et al. Trials of pharmacological interventions for Tourette syndrome: a systematic review. Behav Neurol. 2013;26:265-273.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22713420?tool=bestpractice.com
轻度至中度抽搐的一线药物治疗一般是 α-2 激动剂(例如氯压定和胍法辛)。氯压定和胍法辛均被证明对治疗抽搐有效;一般情况下,胍法辛的有利副作用较多,因为它不太可能引起嗜睡或镇静。[43]Leckman JF, Pauls DL, Peterson BS, et al. Pathogenesis of Tourette syndrome. Clues from the clinical phenotype and natural history. Adv Neurol. 1992;58:15-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1414618?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Garcia-Ruiz PJ. Pharmacological options for the treatment of Tourette's disorder. Drugs. 2001;61:2207-2220.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11772131?tool=bestpractice.com苯二氮䓬类药物(例如氯硝西泮)也可用于青少年或青年。当患者存在显著焦虑症状时,氯硝西泮可能有效。
中度至重度抽搐患者可使用抑制神经药物进行治疗。[74]Chen JJ, Ondo WG, Dashtipour K, et al. Tetrabenazine for the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders: a review of the literature. Clin Ther. 2012;34:1487-1504.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22749259?tool=bestpractice.com美国食品药品监督管理局只批准了氟哌啶醇、哌咪清和阿立哌唑这三种药物。然而,与其使用相关的不良反应很显著,包括镇静、抑郁、体重增加、肝毒性和药物诱导的运动障碍。[75]Robertson MM. Tourette syndrome, associated conditions and the complexities of treatment. Brain. 2000;123:425-462.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10686169?tool=bestpractice.com[76]Panagiotopoulos C, Ronsley R, Elbe D, et al. First do no harm: promoting an evidence-based approach to atypical antipsychotic use in children and adolescents. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;19:124-137.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2868560/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20467549?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Yoo HK, Joung YS, Lee JS, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of aripiprazole in children and adolescents with Tourette's disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:e772-e780.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24021518?tool=bestpractice.com氟哌啶醇、哌咪清和阿立哌唑均可能与急性锥体外系症状(静坐不能和急性肌张力障碍反应)、帕金森病相关,而且长期使用可能与迟发性综合征(如迟发性运动障碍和迟发性肌张力障碍)相关。第二代抗精神病药物阿立哌唑也可能与代谢性不良反应(包括体重增加、血糖升高、胰岛素抵抗增加和脂质增加)相关。[78]De Hert M, Dobbelaere M, Sheridan EM, et al. Metabolic and endocrine adverse effects of second-generation antipsychotics in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized, placebo controlled trials and guidelines for clinical practice. Eur Psychiatry. 2011;26:144-158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21295450?tool=bestpractice.com
随着非典型神经抑制药物的出现,虽然仍可能出现锥体外系症状,但是可能性很小;因此非典型神经阻滞剂的使用已经取代了氟哌啶醇和哌咪清。使用第二代药物出现迟发性综合征的风险可能较低。[79]Correll CU, Kane JM. One-year incidence rates of tardive dyskinesia in children and adolescents treated with second-generation antipsychotics: a systematic review. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2007;17:647-656.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17979584?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Pringsheim T, Marras C. Pimozide for tics in Tourette's syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(2):CD006996.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006996.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19370666?tool=bestpractice.com一项利培酮与哌咪清的双盲平行组比较研究发现,两者均对治疗抽搐有效;但是利培酮治疗组的锥体外系不良反应更少。[81]Bruggeman R, van der Linden C, Buitelaar JK, et al. Risperidone versus pimozide in Tourette's disorder: a comparative double-blind parallel-group study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2001;62:50-56.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11235929?tool=bestpractice.com[82]Cheng W, Lin L, Guo S. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of risperidone versus traditional agents for Tourette's syndrome [in Chinese]. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban. 2012;37:359-365.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22561566?tool=bestpractice.com一项 28 名 TS 患者的双盲安慰剂对照研究表明,齐拉西酮对减少抽搐有效;而嗜睡是最常见的不良反应。[83]Sallee FR, Kurlan R, Goetz CG, et al. Ziprasidone treatment of children and adolescents with Tourette's syndrome: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:292-299.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10714048?tool=bestpractice.com抽搐改善:有较差质量的证据表明,与安慰剂相比,齐拉西酮治疗与抽搐改善相关。[83]Sallee FR, Kurlan R, Goetz CG, et al. Ziprasidone treatment of children and adolescents with Tourette's syndrome: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39:292-299.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10714048?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。关于阿立哌唑治疗 TS 儿童和青少年的一项双盲安慰剂对照研究表明,与安慰剂相比,阿立哌唑更能有效减少抽搐。[77]Yoo HK, Joung YS, Lee JS, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of aripiprazole in children and adolescents with Tourette's disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74:e772-e780.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24021518?tool=bestpractice.com关于阿立哌唑治疗抽动障碍儿童和青少年患者的效果的多个 meta 分析证实了这一研究成果。[84]Liu Y, Ni H, Wang C, et al. Effectiveness and tolerability of aripiprazole in children and adolescents with Tourette's disorder: a meta-analysis. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26:436-441.http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/cap.2015.0125http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26914764?tool=bestpractice.com[85]Yang CS, Huang H, Zhang LL, et al. Aripiprazole for the treatment of tic disorders in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:179.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4518630/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26220447?tool=bestpractice.com
尚未对其他非典型药物(如喹硫平)进行彻底研究,但是一些研究显示了有利结果。[86]de Jonge JL, Cath DC, van Balkom AJ. Quetiapine in patients with Tourette's disorder: an open-label, flexible-dose study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:1148-1150.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17685760?tool=bestpractice.com减少成人抽搐:有较差质量的证据表明,喹硫平治疗与成人抽搐减少和损害降低相关。[86]de Jonge JL, Cath DC, van Balkom AJ. Quetiapine in patients with Tourette's disorder: an open-label, flexible-dose study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68:1148-1150.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17685760?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
有趣的是,报告称肉毒杆菌毒素注射可以减少抽搐的运动和先兆感觉。[87]Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin in movement disorders. Curr Opin Neurol. 1994;7:358-366.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7952246?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Kwak CH, Hanna PA, Jankovic J. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of tics. Arch Neurol. 2000;57:1190-1193.http://archneur.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/57/8/1190http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10927800?tool=bestpractice.com当 α-激动剂、苯二氮䓬类药物和神经阻滞剂不能减少引起巨大痛苦或损害的轻度至中度抽搐时,可能会考虑使用。
托吡酯是一种抗惊厥药,在一项随机对照试验研究中与安慰剂比较,已证明可有效治疗 TS。[89]Yang CS, Zhang LL, Zeng LN, et al. Topiramate for Tourette's syndrome in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Neurol. 2013;49:344-350.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24139534?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Jankovic J, Jimenez-Shahed J, Brown LW. A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of topiramate in the treatment of Tourette syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010;81:70-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19726418?tool=bestpractice.com不建议使用另一种抗惊厥药丙戊酸钠治疗 TS 儿童患者。[91]Yang CS, Zhang LL, Lin YZ, et al. Sodium valproate for the treatment of Tourette׳s syndrome in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res. 2015;226:411-417.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25724485?tool=bestpractice.com丁苯那嗪可减少突触前单胺类物质的储存并阻滞突触后多巴胺受体,已被用于治疗包括 TS 在内的活动过度运动障碍,并且似乎耐受性好。[92]Jankovic J, Beach J. Long-term effects of tetrabenazine in hyperkinetic movement disorders. Neurology. 1997;48:358-362.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9040721?tool=bestpractice.com抽搐改善:有较差质量的证据表明,丁苯那嗪治疗与患有多种多动性运动障碍,包括 TS 患者的抽搐改善相关。[92]Jankovic J, Beach J. Long-term effects of tetrabenazine in hyperkinetic movement disorders. Neurology. 1997;48:358-362.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9040721?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。最常见的不良反应与神经抑制药物类似,包括锥体外系症状,没有迟发性综合征。已知它会导致或加重抑郁症,但是在一项多动性运动障碍长期治疗综述中报告,只有 7.6% 的患者出现抑郁症不良反应。[93]Kenney C, Hunter C, Jankovic J. Long-term tolerability of tetrabenazine in the treatment of hyperkinetic movement disorders. Mov Disord. 2007;22:193-197.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17133512?tool=bestpractice.com
培高利特是一种突触前多巴胺受体激动剂,既往研究已经证明其疗效。[94]Gilbert DL, Sethuraman G, Sine L, et al. Tourette's syndrome improvement with pergolide in a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Neurology. 2000;54:1310-1315.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10746603?tool=bestpractice.com儿童抽搐改善:有较差质量的证据表明,与安慰剂相比,培高利特与耶鲁综合抽搐严重程度量表 (YGTSS) 显著改善相关。[94]Gilbert DL, Sethuraman G, Sine L, et al. Tourette's syndrome improvement with pergolide in a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Neurology. 2000;54:1310-1315.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10746603?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。其他多巴胺受体激动剂,包括罗匹尼罗和普拉克索尚未进行广泛研究;一项关于罗匹尼罗的 8 周开放标签研究表明低剂量似乎与抽搐改善相关。[95]Anca MH, Giladi N, Korczyn AD. Ropinirole in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Neurology. 2004;62:1626-1627.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15136698?tool=bestpractice.com另外一项随机对照研究报告,普拉克索和安慰剂对于减少抽搐没有差异。[96]Kurlan R, Crespi G, Coffey B, et al. A multicenter randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of pramipexole for Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord. 2012;27:775-778.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22407510?tool=bestpractice.com假定机制包括其对突触前多巴胺自身受体释放多巴胺的作用。[97]Cianchetti C, Fratta A, Pisano T, et al. Pergolide improvement in neuroleptic-resistant Tourette cases: various mechanisms causing tics. Neurol Sci. 2005;26:137-139.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15995832?tool=bestpractice.com
以其他非多巴胺能系统为治疗靶点的药物(如四氢大麻酚)也正处于研究阶段,并取得了可喜的成果。[98]Whiting PF, Wolff RF, Deshpande S, et al. Cannabinoids for medical use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2015;313:2456-2473.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2338251http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26103030?tool=bestpractice.com
补充治疗包括草药和补剂,经常被家人用来治疗抽搐和 TS。然而,关于这些干预的疗效的证据几乎没有。[99]Kim YH, Son CG, Ku BC, et al. Herbal medicines for treating tic disorders: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Chin Med. 2014;9:6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3930107/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24507013?tool=bestpractice.com一项关于来自鱼油的 ω-3 脂肪酸对 33 名 TS 儿童和青少年的作用的随机对照研究报告,虽然 ω-3 脂肪酸没有减少抽搐分数,但是它对减少部分儿童和青少年的抽搐相关损害有益。[100]Gabbay V, Babb JS, Klein RG, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acids in Tourette's disorder. Pediatrics. 2012;129:e1493-e1500.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/129/6/e1493.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22585765?tool=bestpractice.com最近,一项使用乙酰半胱氨酸的随机、双盲、安慰剂对照辅助试验发现,没有证据表明这种补充剂可有效治疗抽搐症状。[101]Bloch MH, Panza KE, Yaffa A, et al. N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of pediatric Tourette syndrome: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled add-on trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2016;26:327-334.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27027204?tool=bestpractice.com这一领域需要进行更多研究。