生化特点(低血钙、高血磷酸盐)也可见于甲状旁腺功能减退症以及假性甲状旁腺功能减退症(甲状旁腺素 [PTH] 受体活化缺陷或 PTH 抵抗)中。假性甲状旁腺功能减退症时,全段血浆 PTH 水平常显著增高,用于临床上鉴别两种疾病。
DiGeorge 综合征,估计活产儿的发生率是 1/4000 - 1/6000,是由染色体 22 (22q11.2) 上基因的杂合子缺失引起的,可导致心脏、胸腺、甲状旁腺和其他组织发育缺陷。[7]McDonald-McGinn DM, Sullivan KE. Chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (DiGeorge syndrome/velocardiofacial syndrome). Medicine (Baltimore). 2011 Jan;90(1):1-18.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21200182?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Hacıhamdioğlu B, Hacıhamdioğlu D, Delil K. 22q11 deletion syndrome: current perspective. Appl Clin Genet. 2015 May 18;8:123-32.https://www.dovepress.com/22q11-deletion-syndrome-current-perspective-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TACGhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26056486?tool=bestpractice.com TBX1 基因缺陷是该综合征中一个最显著的病因。该综合征的严重程度不尽相同。心脏方面的缺陷包括:动脉干、房间隔或室间隔缺陷、法洛四联症、血管环及其他。免疫缺陷可以是轻度或重度。低钙血症可能出现于出生时,其生化特点显示甲状旁腺发育不全,或者有轻度低钙血症及 PTH 水平仅中度降低,在较大年龄出现症状。该综合征甚至到成人期才得到确诊。
甲状旁腺细胞外钙敏感传导途径中两个关键基因的突变会引起常染色体显性 1 型和 2 型甲状旁腺功能减退症。1 型和 2 型分别是因为细胞外钙敏感传导受体 (CASR) 和 G-蛋白亚单位 (G-α 11) 基因的功能突变所致。[9]Nesbit MA, Hannan FM, Howles SA, et al. Mutations affecting G-protein subunit α11 in hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jun 27;368(26):2476-86.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1300253http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23802516?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Hannan FM, Thakker RV. Calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) mutations and disorders of calcium, electrolyte and water metabolism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Jun;27(3):359-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23856265?tool=bestpractice.com CASR 突变可能是孤立性(非手术性)甲状旁腺功能减退症最常见的病因。[10]Hannan FM, Thakker RV. Calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) mutations and disorders of calcium, electrolyte and water metabolism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Jun;27(3):359-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23856265?tool=bestpractice.com 该类疾病常引起轻度低钙血症及 PTH 水平不适当偏低。 CASR 突变可引起婴幼儿期出现重度低钙血症、癫痫发作以及耗盐临床表现和 V 型 Bartter 综合征表现。[10]Hannan FM, Thakker RV. Calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) mutations and disorders of calcium, electrolyte and water metabolism. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013 Jun;27(3):359-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23856265?tool=bestpractice.com
其他遗传性病因包括甲状旁腺发育中所需的关键转录因子的突变,如 GATA3 或 GCM2。随着 GATA3 功能丧失性突变的出现,肾畸形和耳聋常常以常染色体显性遗传形式伴随甲状旁腺功能减退症出现。[1]Shoback DM, Bilezikian JP, Costa AG, et al. Presentation of hypoparathyroidism: etiologies and clinical features. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016 Jun;101(6):2300-12.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/101/6/2300/2804735http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26943721?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Shoback D. Clinical practice. Hypoparathyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jul 24;359(4):391-403.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18650515?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Bilezikian JP, Khan A, Potts JT Jr, et al. Hypoparathyroidism in the adult: epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, target-organ involvement, treatment, and challenges for future research. J Bone Miner Res. 2011 Oct;26(10):2317-37.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jbmr.483http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21812031?tool=bestpractice.com GCM2 突变所致的甲状旁腺功能减退症是孤立性的;同时观察到了常染色体隐性和常染色体显性遗传。
1 型自身免疫性多内分泌腺综合征 (APS1) 由自身免疫调节 (AIRE) 基因的功能丧失突变引起,通常为常染色体隐性遗传。疾病的初期表现包括在生命最初几年有黏膜皮肤念珠菌病,之后出现甲状旁腺功能减退症和/或肾上腺功能不全,多在儿童期发病。[11]Betterle C, Garelli S, Presotto F. Diagnosis and classification of autoimmune parathyroid disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2014 Apr-May;13(4-5):417-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24424178?tool=bestpractice.com
甲状旁腺功能减退症可发生于骨骼颅骨狭窄综合征(osteocraniostenosis,骨骼密度小、身材矮小、高围产期死亡率)和 Kenny-Caffey 综合征中,两者均是 FAMIIIA 杂合子突变所引起的等位基因疾病。[12]Unger S, Górna MW, Le Béchec A, et al. FAM111A mutations result in hypoparathyroidism and impaired skeletal development. Am J Hum Genet. 2013 Jun 6;92(6):990-5.https://www.cell.com/ajhg/fulltext/S0002-9297(13)00181-X?code=ajhg-sitehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23684011?tool=bestpractice.com
Kearns-Sayre 综合征是由线粒体基因组缺失引起的,可能包括甲状旁腺功能减退症、脑病和卒中样事件发作。[1]Shoback DM, Bilezikian JP, Costa AG, et al. Presentation of hypoparathyroidism: etiologies and clinical features. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016 Jun;101(6):2300-12.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/101/6/2300/2804735http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26943721?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Shoback D. Clinical practice. Hypoparathyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jul 24;359(4):391-403.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18650515?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Bilezikian JP, Khan A, Potts JT Jr, et al. Hypoparathyroidism in the adult: epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, target-organ involvement, treatment, and challenges for future research. J Bone Miner Res. 2011 Oct;26(10):2317-37.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jbmr.483http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21812031?tool=bestpractice.com
Sanjad-Sakati 综合征包括微管蛋白折叠辅助因子 E 常染色体隐性突变引起的甲状旁腺功能减退症、身材矮小和智力障碍。[1]Shoback DM, Bilezikian JP, Costa AG, et al. Presentation of hypoparathyroidism: etiologies and clinical features. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016 Jun;101(6):2300-12.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/101/6/2300/2804735http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26943721?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Shoback D. Clinical practice. Hypoparathyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jul 24;359(4):391-403.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18650515?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Bilezikian JP, Khan A, Potts JT Jr, et al. Hypoparathyroidism in the adult: epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, target-organ involvement, treatment, and challenges for future research. J Bone Miner Res. 2011 Oct;26(10):2317-37.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jbmr.483http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21812031?tool=bestpractice.com
PTH 编码基因的突变极为罕见,但已有相关记录及详细描述,可见于常染色体隐性或显性遗传中。[1]Shoback DM, Bilezikian JP, Costa AG, et al. Presentation of hypoparathyroidism: etiologies and clinical features. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016 Jun;101(6):2300-12.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/101/6/2300/2804735http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26943721?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Shoback D. Clinical practice. Hypoparathyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jul 24;359(4):391-403.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18650515?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Bilezikian JP, Khan A, Potts JT Jr, et al. Hypoparathyroidism in the adult: epidemiology, diagnosis, pathophysiology, target-organ involvement, treatment, and challenges for future research. J Bone Miner Res. 2011 Oct;26(10):2317-37.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jbmr.483http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21812031?tool=bestpractice.com
低镁血症和高镁血症,这是甲状旁腺功能减退症的两种功能状态。[13]William JH, Danziger J. Proton-pump inhibitor-induced hypomagnesemia: current research and proposed mechanisms. World J Nephrol. 2016 Mar 6;5(2):152-7.https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-6124/full/v5/i2/152.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26981439?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Viering DH, de Baaij JH, Walsh SB, et al. Genetic causes of hypomagnesemia, a clinical overview. Pediatr Nephrol. 2017 Jul;32(7):1123-35.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27234911?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Konrad M, Schlingmann KP. Inherited disorders of renal hypomagnesaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014 Sep;29 Suppl 4:iv63-71.https://academic.oup.com/ndt/article/29/suppl_4/iv63/1909013http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25165187?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Agus ZS. Mechanisms and causes of hypomagnesemia. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2016 Jul;25(4):301-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27219040?tool=bestpractice.com 在低镁血症患者中,低血浆 PTH 水平可通过镁的补足而立即得到逆转。一些危险因素,例如质子泵抑制剂治疗,可能导致慢性低镁血症,而且,大量有关镁代谢的遗传性疾病也会引发该病。[13]William JH, Danziger J. Proton-pump inhibitor-induced hypomagnesemia: current research and proposed mechanisms. World J Nephrol. 2016 Mar 6;5(2):152-7.https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-6124/full/v5/i2/152.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26981439?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Viering DH, de Baaij JH, Walsh SB, et al. Genetic causes of hypomagnesemia, a clinical overview. Pediatr Nephrol. 2017 Jul;32(7):1123-35.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27234911?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Konrad M, Schlingmann KP. Inherited disorders of renal hypomagnesaemia. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014 Sep;29 Suppl 4:iv63-71.https://academic.oup.com/ndt/article/29/suppl_4/iv63/1909013http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25165187?tool=bestpractice.com 慢性酒精中毒、营养不良、腹泻、以及吸收不良可导致低镁血症。[16]Agus ZS. Mechanisms and causes of hypomagnesemia. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2016 Jul;25(4):301-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27219040?tool=bestpractice.com
孤立的自身免疫性甲状旁腺功能减退症(无其他内分泌疾病或免疫功能障碍)可发生于任何年龄。[11]Betterle C, Garelli S, Presotto F. Diagnosis and classification of autoimmune parathyroid disease. Autoimmun Rev. 2014 Apr-May;13(4-5):417-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24424178?tool=bestpractice.com
Riedel 甲状腺炎患者可能出现甲状旁腺功能减退症;认为这是由于显著纤维化以及可导致甲状腺功能破坏的 IgG4-介导疾病的炎性反应引起的。[17]Lo JC, Loh KC, Rubin AL, et al. Riedel's thyroiditis presenting with hypothyroidism and hypoparathyroidism: dramatic response to glucocorticoid and thyroxine therapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1998 Jun;48(6):815-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9713573?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Fatourechi MM, Hay ID, McIver B, et al. Invasive fibrous thyroiditis (Riedel thyroiditis): the Mayo Clinic experience, 1976-2008. Thyroid. 2011 Jul;21(7):765-72.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21568724?tool=bestpractice.com