在美国和欧洲,大多数情况下,甲状旁腺功能亢进症是在进行常规实验室检查时偶尔发现的。高钙血症和原发性甲状旁腺功能亢进症极少通过临床情况进行诊断,确诊有赖于实验室检查。在资源贫乏的国家,大多数患者都有临床症状。[12]Silverberg SJ, Bilezikian JP. The diagnosis and management of asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab. 2006 Sep;2(9):494-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16957763?tool=bestpractice.com
病史和体格检查
初步评估应包括详细的个人史和家族史。女性原发性甲状旁腺功能亢进症 (PHPT) 的发病率是男性的 2 至 3 倍。[22]AACE/AAES Task Force on Primary Hyperparathyroidism. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons position statement on the diagnosis and management of primary hyperparathyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2005 Jan-Feb;11(1):49-54.https://www.aace.com/files/position-statements/hyperparathyroidps.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16033736?tool=bestpractice.com PHPT 发病率随年龄的增长而增加,在绝经后女性中尤其常见。[22]AACE/AAES Task Force on Primary Hyperparathyroidism. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons position statement on the diagnosis and management of primary hyperparathyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2005 Jan-Feb;11(1):49-54.https://www.aace.com/files/position-statements/hyperparathyroidps.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16033736?tool=bestpractice.com
病史中可有骨量减少、骨质疏松症或者肾结石病史。也可以有甲状旁腺功能亢进症家族史或者即使尚未诊断,但存在提示高钙血症的特征表现,例如肾结石、早期骨质疏松症、或者神经精神症状。
出于评估是否要进行甲状旁腺切除术的目的,“症状性”特指已存在靶器官并发症的情况,例如严重的骨病/骨折、肾结石或者明显的神经肌肉功能障碍。其他特征(例如神经精神症状 [明显的神经肌肉功能障碍现在并不常见)、绝经、心血管疾病异常表现、胃肠道症状或者骨代谢的血清/尿液标志物等])被认为是非特异性的。[4]Bilezikian JP, Potts JT Jr, Fuleihan G el-H, et al. Summary statement from a workshop on asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism: a perspective for the 21st century. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Dec;87(12):5353-61.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/87/12/5353/2823571http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12466320?tool=bestpractice.com[5]McDow AD, Sippel RS. Should symptoms be considered an indication for parathyroidectomy in primary hyperparathyroidism? Clin Med Insights Endocrinol Diabetes. 2018 Jun 27;11:1179551418785135.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6043916/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30013413?tool=bestpractice.com
以下非特异性表现最为常见:
疲乏
睡眠差
肌痛
焦虑
抑郁
健忘
骨痛
便秘
肌肉痉挛
感觉异常。
一旦确诊甲状旁腺功能亢进症,那么原来认为是其他疾病或者衰老导致的非特异性症状则可能归因于甲状旁腺功能亢进症。手术治疗可能明显缓解这些症状;被认为无症状的患者有时会报告手术后生活质量调查问卷结果改善。[27]Sheldon DG, Lee FT, Neil NJ, Ryan JA Jr. Surgical treatment of hyperparathyroidism improves health-related quality of life. Arch Surg. 2002 Sep;137(9):1022-6; discussion 1026-8.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/212886http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12215152?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Pasieka JL, Parsons LL. Prospective surgical outcome study of relief of symptoms following surgery in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. World J Surg. 1998 Jun;22(6):513-8; discussion 518-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9597921?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Pasieka JL, Parsons L, Jones J. The long-term benefit of parathyroidectomy in primary hyperparathyroidism: a 10-year prospective surgical outcome study. Surgery. 2009 Dec;146(6):1006-13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19958927?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Ambrogini E, Cetani F, Cianferotti L, et al. Surgery or surveillance for mild asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Aug;92(8):3114-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17535997?tool=bestpractice.com 但很少有随机对照数据支持这一观察结果。[31]Perrier ND, Balachandran D, Wefel JS, et al. Prospective, randomized, controlled trial of parathyroidectomy versus observation in patients with "asymptomatic" primary hyperparathyroidism. Surgery. 2009 Dec;146(6):1116-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19879613?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Morris GS, Grubbs EG, Hearon CM, et al. Parathyroidectomy improves functional capacity in "asymptomatic" older patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Surg. 2010 May;251(5):832-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20395857?tool=bestpractice.com
颈部体格检查结果通常无明显异常。一个可触及的颈部肿块最有可能是甲状腺病变,但如果是一个坚硬而紧实的肿块,可能提示甲状旁腺癌。[33]Rodgers SE, Perrier ND. Parathyroid carcinoma. Curr Opin Oncol. 2006 Jan;18(1):16-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16357559?tool=bestpractice.com
实验室
PHPT 是通过多次测定血钙和血清全段甲状旁腺激素 (PTH) 而确诊的。尽管 PHPT 患者大多数时间都存在高血钙,但是可能偶尔钙水平暂时处于正常状态,因此要求重复检测。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com 如果患者正接受噻嗪类利尿剂治疗,则在钙检测前 2 周应该停药。在抽血时,应该避免抽到静脉淤血处,以确保结果准确。血清钙水平应该用血清白蛋白浓度进行校正。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Khan AA, Hanley DA, Rizzoli R, et al. Primary hyperparathyroidism: review and recommendations on evaluation, diagnosis, and management. A Canadian and international consensus. Osteoporos Int. 2017;28:1-19.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206263/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27613721?tool=bestpractice.com 校正方法为:当血清白蛋白浓度< 40 g/L (4 g/dL) 时,每 10 g/L (1 g/dL) 白蛋白浓度相应增加血清总钙水平 0.20 mmol/L (0.8 mg/dL)。
使用免疫放射或免疫化学试验检测全段血清 PTH (完整的 84 个氨基酸序列)。值得注意的是,存在高钙血症时,如果血清全段 PTH 水平正常并不能排除甲状旁腺功能亢进症,[22]AACE/AAES Task Force on Primary Hyperparathyroidism. The American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and the American Association of Endocrine Surgeons position statement on the diagnosis and management of primary hyperparathyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2005 Jan-Feb;11(1):49-54.https://www.aace.com/files/position-statements/hyperparathyroidps.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16033736?tool=bestpractice.com 因为这是 PTH 水平相对于该血钙水平的相应表现。
血钙正常的 PHPT 患者的血清和离子钙水平正常。因此,正常离子钙是确诊正常血钙 PHPT 的必要条件,但不是诊断高钙 PHPT 的必要条件。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com
还应评估 25 -羟基维生素 D 水平,[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Khan AA, Hanley DA, Rizzoli R, et al. Primary hyperparathyroidism: review and recommendations on evaluation, diagnosis, and management. A Canadian and international consensus. Osteoporos Int. 2017;28:1-19.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206263/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27613721?tool=bestpractice.com 因为维生素 D 水平较低可能会引起生理代偿性 PTH 水平升高,在补充维生素 D 后 PTH 水平可恢复正常。[34]Weaver S, Doherty DB, Jimenez C, et al. Peer-reviewed, evidence-based analysis of vitamin D and primary hyperparathyroidism. World J Surg. 2009 Nov;33(11):2292-302.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19308641?tool=bestpractice.com
碱性磷酸酶水平对于诊断并非必要,但有助于确认骨病的程度。术前碱性磷酸酶水平升高可以预测甲状旁腺切除术后的低钙血症。
血磷水平可能处于正常范围的低限,提示存在伴随的电解质转移。PHPT 患者的血磷水平可降低或在正常低限。
在假定有甲状旁腺功能亢进症的患者中,应进行尿钙检测,并且进行 24 小时尿肌酐和钙的检测。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Khan AA, Hanley DA, Rizzoli R, et al. Primary hyperparathyroidism: review and recommendations on evaluation, diagnosis, and management. A Canadian and international consensus. Osteoporos Int. 2017;28:1-19.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206263/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27613721?tool=bestpractice.com 这可以量化尿钙排泄量,并可探讨家族性低尿钙性高钙血症 (FHH) 的鉴别诊断。通过评估肾脏钙与肌酐排泄比值,通常能将 FHH 与 PHPT 相鉴别,FHH 患者的该比值一般要远低于由其他原因引起的 PHPT 患者。对于长期高钙血症患者,如果尿钙水平低于 100 mg/24 小时,且钙与肌酐清除比小于 0.01,应考虑 FHH。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com 现可通过基因检测确认 FHH。
放射线检查
PHPT 是依据生化指标进行诊断的。甲状旁腺的定位检查并不用于诊断,而是在确定要进行甲状旁腺切除术后为手术医生提供指导。这些检查不能代替对 PHPT 的诊断。[35]Hindié E, Ugur O, Fuster D, et al; Parathyroid Task Group of the EANM. 2009 EANM parathyroid guidelines. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009 Jul;36(7):1201-16.http://www.eanm.org/publications/guidelines/gl_parathyroid_2009.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19471928?tool=bestpractice.com
在手术治疗中,术前影像学检查可用于定位可疑的腺瘤。甲状旁腺通常位于甲状腺的 4 极,但也可能存在于其他位置,因此有可能很难定位。对于通过生化检查明确诊断为 PHPT 的患者,缺乏阳性影像学检查结果并不能作为避免进行甲状旁腺切除术的理由,因为经验丰富的甲状旁腺外科医生仍然能够发现异常的甲状旁腺组织。[2]Khan AA, Hanley DA, Rizzoli R, et al. Primary hyperparathyroidism: review and recommendations on evaluation, diagnosis, and management. A Canadian and international consensus. Osteoporos Int. 2017;28:1-19.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206263/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27613721?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Scott-Coombes DM, Rees J, Jones G, et al. Is unilateral neck surgery feasible in patients with sporadic primary hyperparathyroidism and double negative localisation? World J Surg. 2017 Jun;41(6):1494-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28116482?tool=bestpractice.com
有数种影像学检查方式,但没有一种是唯一首选。[37]Cheung K, Wang TS, Farrokhyar F, et al. A meta-analysis of preoperative localization techniques for patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. Ann Surg Oncol. 2012 Feb;19(2):577-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21710322?tool=bestpractice.com 鉴于影像学检查精确度存在显著的区域差异,应将甲状旁腺切除术的候选患者转诊至临床专家,以根据其对当地影像学检查可用性的了解来决定最佳影像学检查方式。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Treglia G, Trimboli P, Huellner M, et al. Imaging in primary hyperparathyroidism: focus on the evidence-based diagnostic performance of different methods. Minerva Endocrinol. 2018 Jun;43(2):133-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28650133?tool=bestpractice.com
许多机构使用 Tc-99m 甲氧基异丁基异腈进行核素扫描,通常还会同时使用超声检查。[39]Greenspan BS, Dillehay G, Intenzo C, et al. SNM practice guideline for parathyroid scintigraphy 4.0. J Nucl Med Technol. 2012 Jun;40(2):111-8.http://tech.snmjournals.org/content/40/2/111.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22454482?tool=bestpractice.com 超声检查也可用于识别伴随发生的甲状腺疾病,12% 至 67% 的甲状旁腺功能亢进症患者伴随发生甲状腺疾病。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com 使用单光子发射计算机断层成像 (CT) 结合甲氧基异丁基异腈核素扫描可以提高影像学检查的效果,敏感性可达 88%,[40]Treglia G, Sadeghi R, Schalin-Jäntti C, et al. Detection rate of (99m) Tc-MIBI single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/CT in preoperative planning for patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: A meta-analysis. Head Neck. 2016 Apr;38(suppl 1):E2159-72.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25757222?tool=bestpractice.com 特异性可达 98.8%。[20]Taniegra ED. Hyperparathyroidism. Am Fam Physician. 2004 Jan 15;69(2):333-9.https://www.aafp.org/afp/2004/0115/p333.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14765772?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Lavely WC, Goetze S, Friedman KP, et al. Comparison of SPECT/CT, SPECT, and planar imaging with single- and dual-phase 99mTc-Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy. J Nucl Med. 2007 Jul;48(7):1084-9. [Erratum in: J Nucl Med. 2007 Sep;48(9):1430.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17574983?tool=bestpractice.com甲状旁腺腺瘤定位:中等质量的证据显示早期 SPECT/CT 结合任何延迟显像方法明显优于任何单相或者双相平面或者 SPECT 检查。通过双相采集方法进行定位较平面显像、SPECT 以及 SPECT/CT 等单相 (99m) Tc-甲氧基异丁基异腈闪烁显像的方法更准确。[41]Lavely WC, Goetze S, Friedman KP, et al. Comparison of SPECT/CT, SPECT, and planar imaging with single- and dual-phase 99mTc-Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy. J Nucl Med. 2007 Jul;48(7):1084-9. [Erratum in: J Nucl Med. 2007 Sep;48(9):1430.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17574983?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 四维 CT 已经成为一种有用的影像学检查工具,现在是北美一些中心的首选初始影像学检查(优先于超声和甲氧基异丁基异腈扫描)。与断层扫描甲状旁腺显像相比,四维 CT 似乎具有至少相似的诊断性能,但辐射剂量较高。[38]Treglia G, Trimboli P, Huellner M, et al. Imaging in primary hyperparathyroidism: focus on the evidence-based diagnostic performance of different methods. Minerva Endocrinol. 2018 Jun;43(2):133-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28650133?tool=bestpractice.com 磁共振成像 (MRI) 也是一种选择,但该检查方法除了在某些特定情况下(例如妊娠)外,其他应用较少。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com 功能检查和结构检查相结合,比仅使用任何一种检查方式更为有效。
不推荐在术前对甲状旁腺病变进行例行超声定向细针穿刺活检,只有在异常的 PHPT 疑难病例中才考虑,而且不用于疑似甲状旁腺癌。因为该检查通常是没有必要的,而且有一些不良反应。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com
一旦确诊,应行双能 X 线骨密度测量仪 (DXA) 扫描,以评估在三个部位的疾病进展:腰椎、髋部和前臂。肾脏的超声检查可明确是否存在无症状的肾脏钙化。无症状的肾脏钙化是甲状旁腺切除术的适应证。[1]Wilhelm SM, Wang TS, Ruan DT, et al. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons guidelines for definitive management of primary hyperparathyroidism. JAMA Surg. 2016;151:959-968.http://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2542667http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27532368?tool=bestpractice.com
骨小梁评分 (TBS) 是一种直接由腰椎 DXA 图像改进而来的影像学技术,可提供骨骼微结构信息。已有几项研究评估了 PHPT 患者的 TBS,结果显示 TBS 可能发现 PHPT 中通过腰椎骨密度未能捕获的小梁异常。[42]Ulivieri FM, Silva BC, Sardanelli F, et al. Utility of the trabecular bone score (TBS) in secondary osteoporosis. Endocrine. 2014 Nov;47(2):435-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24853880?tool=bestpractice.com