多数胰腺癌临床症状出现较晚,发现时即为晚期。 临床症状包括不明原因的上腹痛、无痛性梗阻性黄疸、体重下降,以及较晚期时出现的后背痛。 所有疑似胰腺癌患者均应接受专家团队的评估处理,以保证得到及时的诊断和早期治疗。
病史和体格检查
对于任何表现为不明原因的上腹痛、无痛性梗阻性黄疸、体重下降,以及后背痛的患者,医生均应考虑到胰腺癌的可能。 胰腺癌的临床症状可能在早期或晚期出现。
早期肿瘤
晚期肿瘤
在晚期,位于胰头的肿瘤经常堵塞胆总管,表现为梗阻性黄疸的症状,如大便变白、尿色变深,和/或全身瘙痒。 位于胰体尾的肿瘤临床症状出现较晚,经常表现为上腹部疼痛,而且常常放射至背部;这部分患者的黄疸症状常是由于肝脏或肝门部转移导致。
主胰管的广泛浸润或阻塞会引起外分泌功能障碍,导致吸收不良和脂肪泻,或者不明原因的胰腺炎发作。 外分泌功能障碍会导致20%-47%的患者出现新发糖尿病,表现为口渴、多尿、夜尿,以及体重下降。[23]Pannala R, Basu A, Petersen GM, et al. New-onset diabetes: a potential clue to the early diagnosis of pancreatic cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2009 Jan;10(1):88-95.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2795483/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19111249?tool=bestpractice.com 在无诱因或家族史的新发成年糖尿病患者(50岁以上),应当考虑胰腺癌的可能。[4]Chari ST, Leibson CL, Rabe KG, et al. Probability of pancreatic cancer following diabetes: a population-based study. Gastroenterology. 2005 Aug;129(2):504-11.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2377196/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16083707?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Pannala R, Basu A, Petersen GM, et al. New-onset diabetes: a potential clue to the early diagnosis of pancreatic cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2009 Jan;10(1):88-95.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2795483/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19111249?tool=bestpractice.com
胰腺癌晚期的其他体征包括体重下降、厌食、疲乏、上腹部包块、肝肿大、Courvoisier's 征(无痛性可触及的胆囊以及黄疸),或者弥散性血管内凝血的体征(瘀点、紫癜、瘀斑)。
由于胰腺癌患者发生血栓栓塞的风险增加,静脉血栓形成或移位性血栓性静脉炎(Trousseau's征)也可以成为首发症状。
实验室检测
目前尚无胰腺癌的血液检查诊断方法。 适于诊断性检查的实验室检查包括。
肝功能检查(LFTs):肝功能异常与梗阻性黄疸的程度相关,但无法区分胆道梗阻(任何原因的)与肝转移。[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com
生物标志物:目前可用的生物标志物(例如癌抗原 [CA]19-9 或癌胚抗原)对早期识别缺乏理想的敏感性和特异性。[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Harsha HC, Kandasamy K, Ranganathan P, et al. A compendium of potential biomarkers of pancreatic cancer. PLoS Med. 2009 Apr 7;6(4):e1000046.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2661257/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19360088?tool=bestpractice.com CA19-9 的敏感性为 70%-90%,特异性为 90%。良性梗阻性黄疸或慢性胰腺炎时经常有假阳性结果。CA19-9 作为辅助检测在以下方面尤其有帮助:术前分期,识别已行切除术患者的复发,以及评估晚期疾病患者对治疗的反应。[11]Ghaneh P, Costello E, Neoptolemos JP. Biology and management of pancreatic cancer. Gut. 2007 Aug;56(8):1134-52.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955499/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17625148?tool=bestpractice.com
凝血谱和全血细胞计数 (FBC):维生素 K 依赖性凝血因子异常会导致凝血酶原时间延长。FBC 和凝血谱应在实施任何有创诊断性操作前进行。
非侵入性影像学检查
任何临床表现提示为胰腺癌的患者的首选检查都是腹部超声。 腹部超声可以检测出直径超过2cm的肿瘤,以及可能存在的胰腺外病灶(主要是肝转移)或胆总管扩张,有报道其敏感性为80%-95%;早期病变或肿瘤位于胰体尾时敏感性较低。[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,腹部超声表现正常并不能排除胰腺癌的可能,因为这种情况下胰腺可能没有得到充分的评估。
对于初始怀疑有胰腺癌的所有患者,均应依据特定的胰腺方案(即,三相薄层横断面成像,在静脉相的特定方向,使用静脉用对比剂),通过多相螺旋计算机体层成像 (CT) 进行评估。研究表明,此项检查可达到 97% 的胰腺癌诊断率,并能准确预测 80%-90% 患者的可切除性。[11]Ghaneh P, Costello E, Neoptolemos JP. Biology and management of pancreatic cancer. Gut. 2007 Aug;56(8):1134-52.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955499/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17625148?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Zhao W-Y, Luo M, Sun YW, et al. Computed tomography in diagnosing vascular invasion in pancreatic and periampullary cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2009 Oct;8(5):457-64.http://www.hbpdint.com/EN/Y2009/V8/I5/457#http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19822487?tool=bestpractice.com
磁共振成像 (MRI) 与 CT 结果相仿,对于无法接受静脉用造影剂的患者,前者可能更有帮助。弥散加权 (DW) MRI 在区分胰腺病灶方面表现出高特异性 (91%),被认为在区分胰腺良恶性肿瘤方面是一种有帮助的检查,尤其在用于联合 18F-脱氧葡萄糖正电子发射计算机断层显像 (PET)/CT 检查时,敏感性为 87%-90%。然而,弥散加权磁共振成像 (DW-MRI) 和 PET/CT 用于胰腺癌诊断的确切地位仍然需要更多研究来证实。[26]Wu LM, Hu JN, Hua J, et al. Diagnostic value of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging compared with fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography for pancreatic malignancy: a meta-analysis using a hierarchical regression model. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012 Jun;27(6):1027-35.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1440-1746.2012.07112.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22414092?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Wu LM, Xu JR, Hua J, et al. Value of diffusion-weighted imaging for the discrimination of pancreatic lesions: a meta-analysis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012 Feb;24(2):134-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22241215?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Tang S, Huang G, Liu J, et al. Usefulness of 18F-FDG PET, combined FDG-PET/CT and EUS in diagnosing primary pancreatic carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Eur J Radiol. 2011 Apr;78(1):142-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19854016?tool=bestpractice.com 磁共振胰胆管造影 (MRCP) 能提供关于导管的详细信息,同时避免了有创经内镜逆行胰胆管造影术 (ERCP) 的风险;磁共振血管成像 (MRA) 能显示血管解剖。[11]Ghaneh P, Costello E, Neoptolemos JP. Biology and management of pancreatic cancer. Gut. 2007 Aug;56(8):1134-52.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955499/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17625148?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com MRCP是评估胆道的一项无创方法,但是评估壶腹部的清晰度不如ERCP。
有创影像学检查
内镜下超声(EUS)在检出小肿瘤(小至2-3mm),以及主要血管结构受侵(尽管在肠系膜上动脉显像方面准确度较低)和胰腺囊性肿瘤特征方面敏感性较高。[29]Dewitt J, Devereaux BM, Lehman GA, et al. Comparison of endoscopic ultrasound and computed tomography for the preoperative evaluation of pancreatic cancer: a systematic review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2006 Jun;4(6):717-25.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16675307?tool=bestpractice.com EUS 引导下细针穿刺 (FNA) 细胞学检查已经被证明是一种微创安全手术,且可很准确地诊断胰腺癌,敏感度为 85%-91%,特异度为 94%-98%。[30]Hewitt MJ, McPhail MJ, Possamai L, et al. EUS-guided FNA for diagnosis of solid pancreatic neoplasms: a meta-analysis. Gastrointest Endosc. 2012 Feb;75(2):319-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22248600?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Ngamruengphong S, Swanson KM, Shah ND, et al. Preoperative endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration does not impair survival of patients with resected pancreatic cancer. Gut. 2015 Jul;64(7):1105-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25575893?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,快速的现场细胞病理学评估已被证明可维持但无法提高接受 EUS-FNA 的患者的诊断准确度。[32]Wani S, Mullady D, Early DS, et al. The clinical impact of immediate on-site cytopathology evaluation during endoscopic ultrasound-guided fine needle aspiration of pancreatic masses: a prospective multicenter randomized controlled trial. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015 Oct;110(10):1429-39.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26346868?tool=bestpractice.com ERCP作为一种单纯影像学检查,敏感度70%-82%,特异度88%-94%。 ERCP的优势在于提供了细胞或组织活检的可能,以及在不适宜手术或手术必须推迟时放置胆道支架来缓解胆道梗阻。[11]Ghaneh P, Costello E, Neoptolemos JP. Biology and management of pancreatic cancer. Gut. 2007 Aug;56(8):1134-52.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955499/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17625148?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com
腹腔镜(包括腹腔镜下超声和腹膜冲洗)能够识别出其他影像学检查无法检出的隐匿性肝脏和腹腔转移灶(尤其是当原发灶位于胰体或胰尾,或者患者有较高的疾病播散风险:例如处于可切除临界范围、原发灶较大、CA19-9 较高时)。[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Maithel SK, Maloney S, Winston C, et al. Preoperative CA 19-9 and the yield of staging laparoscopy in patients with radiographically resectable pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Ann Surg Oncol. 2008 Dec;15(12):3512-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18781364?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Hori Y; SAGES Guidelines Committee. Diagnostic laparoscopy guidelines. Surg Endosc. 2008 May;22(5):1353-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18389320?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Hariharan D, Constantinides VA, Froeling FE, et al. The role of laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasound in the preoperative staging of pancreatico-biliary cancers: a meta-analysis. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2010 Oct;36(10):941-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20547445?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,在何种患者身上使用腹腔镜分期具有较高的诊断准确性,这一选择标准仍待进一步的前瞻性研究证实。[34]Hori Y; SAGES Guidelines Committee. Diagnostic laparoscopy guidelines. Surg Endosc. 2008 May;22(5):1353-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18389320?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Hariharan D, Constantinides VA, Froeling FE, et al. The role of laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasound in the preoperative staging of pancreatico-biliary cancers: a meta-analysis. Eur J Surg Oncol. 2010 Oct;36(10):941-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20547445?tool=bestpractice.com
在使用其他技术进行分期方面尚无共识。 选择性应用ERCP和/或MRCP(以及偶尔使用MRA)能够准确确定肿瘤大小、组织浸润,以及转移灶。 EUS在患者的CT扫描未能显示出病灶或血管/淋巴结受侵无法确定时特别有指示意义。 基于胰腺中心的专业性,腹腔镜分期应用于某些患者是适宜的。[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com
组织学诊断
术前组织学诊断是不必要的;当临床高度怀疑为胰腺癌时,非诊断性活检不应当延误适宜的外科治疗。[36]National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology: pancreatic adenocarcinoma [internet publication].http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/f_guidelines.asp#site 与之相对的是,对选择进行姑息性治疗的晚期不可切除患者,活检确诊是必要的。[37]Hartwig W, Schneider L, Diener MK, et al. Preoperative tissue diagnosis for tumours of the pancreas. Br J Surg. 2009 Jan;96(1):5-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19016272?tool=bestpractice.com 所有患者均应推荐至有胰腺疾病处理经验的专业中心立即进行活检。
EUS引导下活检或FNA,或胰腺导管刷检,或ERCP活检均优于超声或CT引导下经皮穿刺经腹膜入路活检。 经腹膜穿刺活检的两个主要问题是假阴性结果的风险以及沿针道或腹膜内肿瘤细胞播散的风险。[38]Micames C, Jowell PS, White R, et al. Lower frequency of peritoneal carcinomatosis in patients with pancreatic cancer diagnosed by EUS-guided FNA vs. percutaneous FNA. Gastrointest Endosc. 2003 Nov;58(5):690-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14595302?tool=bestpractice.com 因此,对于潜在可切除患者,经腹膜穿刺活检应当避免;然而对于转移灶进行经皮穿刺活检是推荐的。[22]Pancreatic Section, British Society of Gastroenterology; Pancreatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Association of Upper Gastrointestinal Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Pathologists; Special Interest Group for Gastro-Intestinal Radiology. Guidelines for the management of patients with pancreatic cancer periampullary and ampullary carcinomas. Gut. 2005 Jun;54 (Suppl 5):v1-16.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867803/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15888770?tool=bestpractice.com