IPF的病因不明。一个可能的学说是一种尚未识别的损害对肺泡上皮细胞、内皮细胞及基底膜造成损伤。吸烟、有机或金属粉尘、胃食管反流病、糖尿病和感染均与IPF相关。 然而,确切的刺激暴露物仍是未知的。[1]American Thoracic Society; European Respiratory Society. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: diagnosis and treatment. International consensus statement. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:646-664.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.161.2.ats3-00#.UmEPiNglgZkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10673212?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Stidley CA, et al. Cigarette smoking: a risk factor for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:242-248.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9001319?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Hubbard R, Lewis S, Richards K, et al. Occupational exposure to metal or wood dust and aetiology of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Lancet. 1996;347:284-289.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8569361?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Iwai K, Mori T, Yamada N, et al. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Epidemiologic approaches to occupational exposure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:670-675.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8087336?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Coultas DB, et al. Occupational and environmental risk factors for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a multicenter case-control study. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:307-315.http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/152/4/307http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10968375?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Vannella KM, Moore BB. Viruses as co-factors for the initiation or exacerbation of lung fibrosis. Fibrogenesis Tissue Repair. 2008;1:2.http://www.fibrogenesis.com/content/1/1/2http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19014649?tool=bestpractice.com
两项大型病例对照研究探讨吸烟与IPF的相关性。[10]Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Stidley CA, et al. Cigarette smoking: a risk factor for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:242-248.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9001319?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Hubbard R, Lewis S, Richards K, et al. Occupational exposure to metal or wood dust and aetiology of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Lancet. 1996;347:284-289.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8569361?tool=bestpractice.com研究发现,曾经吸烟和吸烟21~40包年的吸烟者患IPF的风险更高。而且,一项家族性肺纤维化家族人群的研究,比较360名不受累的家族成员与309名受累的家族成员,发现吸烟史与IPF的发病有很强相关性。[15]Steele MP, Speer MC, Loyd JE, et al. Clinical and pathologic features of familial interstitial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172:1146-1152.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200408-1104OC#.UmES29glgZkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16109978?tool=bestpractice.com
作为IPF的可能病因,职业或环境暴露已被广泛研究。其中大部分均为病例对照研究,暴露因素是通过问卷调查来采集的,因此存在严重的回忆偏倚。然而,金属粉尘、木屑、畜禽养殖业等暴露,已被证明是IPF发展的危险因素。[11]Hubbard R, Lewis S, Richards K, et al. Occupational exposure to metal or wood dust and aetiology of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis. Lancet. 1996;347:284-289.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8569361?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Iwai K, Mori T, Yamada N, et al. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Epidemiologic approaches to occupational exposure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150:670-675.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8087336?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Coultas DB, et al. Occupational and environmental risk factors for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a multicenter case-control study. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:307-315.http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/152/4/307http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10968375?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Scott J, Johnston I, Britton J. What causes cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis? A case-control study of environmental exposure to dust. BMJ. 1990;301:1015-1017.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1664043/pdf/bmj00204-0017.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2249047?tool=bestpractice.com其他包括吸入有机或无机粉尘的职业,如石材切割、打磨、饲养鸟类等,均与IPF的发病相关。[13]Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Coultas DB, et al. Occupational and environmental risk factors for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: a multicenter case-control study. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:307-315.http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/152/4/307http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10968375?tool=bestpractice.com吸入细小的有机或无机颗粒物认为可能引起损伤,在某些特定人群中,进而开始级联式反应,最终导致IPF。
有证据表明,胃食管反流病史可能易于导致IPF的发病,推测是酸吸入引起的损伤所致。一项应用食管pH监测的小样本病例对照研究发现,17例IPF患者中16例存在胃酸暴露所致的食管异常,而对照组的比例仅为50%。[17]Tobin RW, Pope CE 2nd, Pellegrini CA, et al. Increased prevalence of gastroesophageal reflux in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:1804-1808.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.158.6.9804105#.UmESqtglgZkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9847271?tool=bestpractice.com但在那些IPF患者中,仅有25%严重反流的患者出现反流症状。随后一个测定食管pH的病例对照研究有相似的结果,87%的IPF患者因为暴露于胃酸出现食管异常,但是只有47%的患者出现症状。[18]Raghu G, Freudenberger TD, Yang S, et al. High prevalence of abnormal acid gastro-oesophageal reflux in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 2006;27:136-142.http://erj.ersjournals.com/cgi/content/full/27/1/136http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16387946?tool=bestpractice.com随后一项大型病例对照研究发现,使用抑制胃酸分泌药物与随后IPF病情发展之间具有相关性,支持上述结果。[19]Gribbin J, Hubbard R, Smith C. Role of diabetes mellitus and gastro-oesophageal reflux in the aetiology of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Respir Med. 2009;103:927-931.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19058956?tool=bestpractice.com此外,一项关于IPF患者的回顾性队列研究发现,应用药物治疗GORD与更长的生存时间具有独立相关性。[20]Lee JS, Ryu JH, Elicker BM , et al. Gastroesophageal reflux therapy is associated with longer survival time in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;184:1390-1394.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21700909?tool=bestpractice.com尽管有上述证据,但是也有可能GORD是肺纤维化,以及胸廓结构改变的结果,而不是IPF的病因。
一项大型病例对照研究表明,应用胰岛素的糖尿病病史,与随后IPF的进展具有相关性。[19]Gribbin J, Hubbard R, Smith C. Role of diabetes mellitus and gastro-oesophageal reflux in the aetiology of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Respir Med. 2009;103:927-931.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19058956?tool=bestpractice.com目前还无法解释这种相关性的机制,有可能这两种疾病是一个共同的全身性疾病的临床表现,而不具有因果关系。
多项研究表明,病毒感染与IPF之间具有可能的关联。病毒病原体包括丙型肝炎病毒、[21]Ueda T, Ohta K, Suzuki N, et al. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and high prevalence of serum antibodies to hepatitis C virus. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;146:266-268.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1320820?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Irving WL, Day S, Johnston ID. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and hepatitis C virus infection. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;148:1683-1684.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7504894?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Meliconi R, Andreone P, Fasano L, et al. Incidence of hepatitis C virus infection in Italian patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Thorax. 1996;51:315-317.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8779139?tool=bestpractice.com腺病毒、[24]Kuwano K, Nomoto Y, Kunitake R, et al. Detection of adenovirus E1A DNA in pulmonary fibrosis using nested polymerase chain reaction. Eur Respir J. 1997;10:1445-1449.http://erj.ersjournals.com/cgi/reprint/10/7/1445http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9230228?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Turner-Warwick M. In search of a cause of cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis (CFA): one initiating factor or many? Thorax. 1998;53(suppl 2):S3-S9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10193340?tool=bestpractice.com巨细胞病毒 (CMV)[26]Yonemaru M, Kasuga I, Kusumoto H, et al. Elevation of antibodies to cytomegalovirus and other herpes viruses in pulmonary fibrosis. Eur Respir J. 1997;10:2040-2045.http://erj.ersjournals.com/cgi/reprint/10/9/2040http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9311499?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Tang YW, Johnson JE, Browning PJ, et al. Herpesvirus DNA is consistently detected in lungs of patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:2633-2640.http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/content/full/41/6/2633?view=long&pmid=12791891http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12791891?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Dworniczak S, Ziora D, Kapral M, et al. Human cytomegalovirus DNA level in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2004;55(suppl 3):67-75.http://www.jpp.krakow.pl/journal/archive/09_04_s3/pdf/67_09_04_s3_article.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15611595?tool=bestpractice.com和 EB 病毒 (EBV)。[29]Vergnon JM, Vincent M, de The G, et al. Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis and Epstein-Barr virus: an association? Lancet. 1984;2:768-771.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6148520?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Stewart JP, Egan JJ, Ross AJ, et al. The detection of Epstein-Barr virus DNA in lung tissue from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:1336-1341.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/ajrccm.159.4.9807077#.UmEUt9glgZkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10194186?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Kelly BG, Lok SS, Hasleton PS, et al. A rearranged form of Epstein-Barr virus DNA is associated with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:510-513.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12186829?tool=bestpractice.com通常来说,这些研究的样本量少,并且仅能说明较对照组而言,这些病毒在IPF人群中存在的比例更高,或普遍存在的病毒如EB病毒等的水平升高。没有明确的因果关系机制,并且其他研究也未找到类似的相关性。[32]Wangoo A, Shaw RJ, Diss TC, et al. Cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis: lack of association with Epstein-Barr virus infection. Thorax. 1997;52:888-891.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9404376?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Zamo A, Poletti V, Reghellin D, et al. HHV-8 and EBV are not commonly found in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 2005;22:123-128.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16053027?tool=bestpractice.com另外的研究已经表明,肺炎支原体或嗜肺军团菌与肺纤维化的发展具有相关性。[34]Kaufman JM, Cuvelier CA, Van der Straeten M. Mycoplasma pneumonia with fulminant evolution into diffuse interstitial fibrosis. Thorax. 1980;35:140-144.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7376118?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Chastre J, Raghu G, Soler P, et al. Pulmonary fibrosis following pneumonia due to acute Legionnaires' disease. Clinical, ultrastructural, and immunofluorescent study. Chest. 1987;91:57-62.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3539546?tool=bestpractice.com然而,这些小样本的研究中仍不能确定,由此所致的纤维化是否与IPF是相同的临床疾病。
IPF患者的一个亚组具有家族史,称为FPF。这种疾病与散发类型无法区分,但是患者发病年龄更早(诊断时平均年龄55.5岁)。[8]Marshall RP, Puddicombe A, Cookson WO, et al. Adult familial cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis in the United Kingdom. Thorax. 2000;55:143-146.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10639533?tool=bestpractice.comFPF是常染色体显性遗传,但是具有不完全外显性,这表明遗传变异而非疾病本身,可能具有环境暴露易感性。[36]Lawson WE, Loyd JE. The genetic approach in pulmonary fibrosis: can it provide clues to this complex disease? Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2006;3:345-349.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2658686/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16738199?tool=bestpractice.comFPF队列研究发现与不同基因突变有关,其中包括一个编码表面活性蛋白C的基因,以及编码端粒酶逆转录酶和端粒酶RNA的基因。[37]Thomas AQ, Lane K, Phillips J 3rd, et al. Heterozygosity for a surfactant protein C gene mutation associated with usual interstitial pneumonitis and cellular nonspecific interstitial pneumonitis in one kindred. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165:1322-1328.http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200112-123OC#.UmETHtglgZkhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11991887?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Armanios MY, Chen JJ, Cogan JD, et al. Telomerase mutations in families with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1317-1326.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa066157#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17392301?tool=bestpractice.com此外,全基因组连锁研究确定了MUC5B基因启动子区单核苷酸多态性与家族性肺纤维化和特发性纤维化之间的重要关系。MUC5B是黏液一种糖蛋白成分黏蛋白-5B的基因。[39]Siebold MA, Wise AL, Speer MC, et al. A common MUC5B promotor polymorphism and pulmonary fibrosis. N Eng J Med. 2011;364:1503-1512.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21506741?tool=bestpractice.com两项不同IPF队列研究的回顾性分析发现,MUC5B基因型与病死率具有相关性,进一步为其具有潜在作用提供了证据。[40]Peljto AL, Zhang Y, Fingerlin TE, et al. Association between the MUC5B promoter polymorphism and survival in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. JAMA. 2013;309:2232-2239.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23695349?tool=bestpractice.com最后,一项病例对照研究的meta分析表明,IPF的发病与编码IL-I受体拮抗剂的IL1RN基因多态性有相关性。[41]Korthagen NM, van Moorsel CH, Kazemier KM, et al. IL1RN genetic variations and risk of IPF: a meta-analysis and mRNA expression study. Immunogenetics. 2012;64:371-377.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3324677/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22322675?tool=bestpractice.com