镇痛药或局麻可缓解咽喉痛、头痛和发热等症状。儿童应避免使用阿司匹林,因其可引起Reye综合征。盐水含漱或喷麻药可使咽炎的疼痛症状暂缓,但一项随机对照试验发现应用利多卡因胶浆并不能改善症状。[16]Hopper SM, McCarthy M, Tancharoen C, et al. Topical lidocaine to improve oral intake in children with painful infectious mouth ulcers: a blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2014;63:292-299.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24210368?tool=bestpractice.com抗生素治疗仅应用于微生物学确诊(快速抗原试验或培养呈阳性)的 A 型链球菌 (GAS) 咽炎,而不应仅根据临床诊断即给予抗生素治疗。[17]Cohen JF, Cohen R, Levy C, et al. Selective testing strategies for diagnosing group A streptococcal infection in children with pharyngitis: a systematic review and prospective multicentre external validation study. CMAJ. 2015;187:23-32.http://www.cmaj.ca/content/187/1/23.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25487666?tool=bestpractice.com若咽炎症状在用药3或4天后不缓解,应考虑其他诊断可能。尽管一项研究表明,抗生素与皮质类固醇联合使用时可以提高 24 小时疼痛完全缓解的可能性,[3]Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:e86-e102.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/55/10/e86.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22965026?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Wing A, Villa-Roel C, Yeh B, et al. Effectiveness of corticosteroid treatment in acute pharyngitis: a systematic review of the literature. Acad Emerg Med. 2010;17:476-483.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20536799?tool=bestpractice.com但是目前不推荐对急性咽炎应用皮质类固醇对症治疗。[19]Hayward G, Thompson MJ, Perera R, et al. Corticosteroids as standalone or add-on treatment for sore throat. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;(10):CD008268.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008268.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23076943?tool=bestpractice.com美国传染病学会指南目前不推荐此治疗方案。[3]Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:e86-e102.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/55/10/e86.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22965026?tool=bestpractice.com
急性咽炎是抗生素使用不当的第三大原因。[20]Fleming-Dutra KE, Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, et al. Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions among US ambulatory care visits, 2010-2011. JAMA. 2016;315:1864-1873.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27139059?tool=bestpractice.com在成人中,延迟处方法限制了抗生素的使用;[21]de la Poza Abad M, Mas Dalmau G, Moreno Bakedano M, et al; Delayed Antibiotic Prescription (DAP) Group. Prescription strategies in acute uncomplicated respiratory infections: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Intern Med. 2016;176:21-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26719947?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,这种方法可能不适合儿童,因为儿童发生风湿热的风险高。已证实,几项限制抗生素使用不当的行动在减少不当开处抗生素方面有效,同时并未增加医生的重复咨询或降低患者的满意度。[22]Coxeter P, Del Mar CB, McGregor L, et al. Interventions to facilitate shared decision making to address antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in primary care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(11):CD010907.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD010907.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26560888?tool=bestpractice.com
A型链球菌(GAS)咽炎
A型链球菌的治疗目标是防止发生急性风湿热,减轻病情、缩短病程,预防传染。[3]Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:e86-e102.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/55/10/e86.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22965026?tool=bestpractice.com症状改善:中等质量的证据显示,与对照组相比,抗生素在3天内能有效缓解咽痛、头痛,特别是对于咽拭子培养链球菌阳性的患者。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。对于有风湿热病史的患者,推荐预防应用抗生素以减少风湿热复发的风险。对于链球菌性咽炎,抗生素仅能将症状持续时间缩短不足一天。[23]Spinks A, Glasziou PP, Del Mar CB. Antibiotics for sore throat. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(11):CD000023.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000023.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24190439?tool=bestpractice.com
A型链球菌对β-内酰胺无固定耐药性,故可用青霉素或阿莫西林治疗。青霉素过敏时,可谨慎使用大环内酯、头孢菌素或克林霉素。[24]Pichichero ME. A review of evidence supporting the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendation for prescribing cephalosporin antibiotics for penicillin-allergic patients. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1048-1057.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15805383?tool=bestpractice.com[25]van Driel ML, De Sutter AI, Keber N, et al. Different antibiotic treatments for group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(4):CD004406.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004406.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23633318?tool=bestpractice.com曾有报道A型链球菌对大环内酯类抗生素耐药。[26]Green M, Martin JM, Barbadora KA, et al. Reemergence of macrolide resistance in pharyngeal isolates of group A streptococci in southwestern Pennsylvania. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48:473-476.http://aac.asm.org/content/48/2/473.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14742197?tool=bestpractice.com不推荐使用多西环素和甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲恶唑进行治疗。[25]van Driel ML, De Sutter AI, Keber N, et al. Different antibiotic treatments for group A streptococcal pharyngitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(4):CD004406.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004406.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23633318?tool=bestpractice.com口服苯氧甲基青霉素可作为治疗方案,连续用10天。对于不能坚持10天疗程的患者,可给予单次苄青霉素肌肉注射。在儿童可选择口服阿莫西林作为替代方案,其口味更易被接受。
如可疑同时感染传染性单核细胞增多症,应避免使用阿莫西林,因其可增加患严重皮疹的可能。[3]Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;55:e86-e102.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/55/10/e86.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22965026?tool=bestpractice.com尽管指南推荐10天的抗生素疗程,有证据表明,较短疗程(如3-6天)抗生素治疗急性咽炎的疗效与10天疗程相当,且无证据证明较短疗程的抗生素治疗后,链球菌感染后肾小球肾炎或风湿热的发病风险会因此提高。[27]Altamimi S, Khalil A, Khalaiwi KA, et al. Short-term late-generation antibiotics versus longer term penicillin for acute streptococcal pharyngitis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;(8):CD004872.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004872.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22895944?tool=bestpractice.com
传染性单核细胞增多症
休息是常规建议,但是其实际作用却不明确。鉴于可能出现脾破裂,因此在发病的最初 3-4 周内应避免剧烈的体力活动(包括接触性运动)。
全身应用糖皮质激素仅限于合并严重气道梗阻、严重血小板减少和溶血性贫血的患者。
静脉用免疫球蛋白(IVIG)可以调节免疫系统反应,可用于免疫性血小板减少的患者。
合并念珠菌感染
白色念珠菌常对局部治疗敏感。轻中度的口腔念珠菌病可用多烯类抗真菌药物(如制霉菌素)治疗。由于医用制霉菌素悬浮液蔗糖含量较高,且需经常使用,可增加蛀牙的风险,对于口腔干燥的患者尤甚。
对于真菌感染范围广泛,侵及更大面积的口腔黏膜,或者病程较长的患者,应使用吡咯类抗真菌药,如克霉唑或氟康唑。
白喉
治疗以白喉抗毒素为主,在临床强烈怀疑白喉时应立即应用。因病情可迅速进展,不应因等待实验室检查确诊而延迟用药。
抗毒素仅可中和血清中的游离毒素。当出现黏膜症状时则标志着毒素进入了细胞,抗毒素的效果将大大降低。
抗生素不能替代抗毒素,但可通过根除白喉棒状杆菌避免其产生更多的毒素。抗生素还能治疗局部的皮肤感染。此外,抗生素还能预防疾病的传播。白喉棒状杆菌通常对青霉素和红霉素敏感。[28]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diphtheria. January 2016. http://www.cdc.gov/ (last accessed 26 September 2016).http://www.cdc.gov/diphtheria/clinicians.html
土拉菌病
对土拉弗菌有效的抗生素治疗适用于所有患者,不因其症状而改变。应遵循标准隔离措施,且应在送检临床样本之前提醒临床实验室,土拉菌病为疑似诊断。根据一些有限的临床经验,环丙沙星与氨基糖苷类药物(链霉素或庆大霉素)效果大致相当。
存在淋球菌或衣原体
与泌尿生殖部位相比,根除咽部的淋球菌更加困难。建议采用双重方案(头孢曲松+阿奇霉素)以预防头孢菌素耐药菌株的出现。双重方案的优势是具有抗衣原体活性。应进行治疗效果检测,以确保治疗后根除。[29]Workowski KA, Bolan GA; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2015;64:1-137.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6403a1.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26042815?tool=bestpractice.com口服头孢菌素并未被证明对咽部淋病绝对有效,但可以在试验性治疗时使用。
复发性咽炎
基于一项随机对照试验的结果,成年复发性咽炎患者可能从扁桃体切除术中获益。[30]Koskenkorva T, Koivunen P, Koskela M, et al. Short-term outcomes of tonsillectomy in adult patients with recurrent pharyngitis: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2013;185:E331-E336.http://www.cmaj.ca/content/185/8/E331.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23549975?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Burton MJ, Glasziou PP, Chong LY, et al. Tonsillectomy or adenotonsillectomy versus non-surgical treatment for chronic/recurrent acute tonsillitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;(11):CD001802.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001802.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25407135?tool=bestpractice.com