儿童虐待通常是一个持续不断的过程。 如果漏诊,儿童可能受到更严重且可能致命的虐待。 普及筛查还未见对识别受虐儿童有显著影响。[60]Louwers EC, Affourtit MJ, Moll HA, et al. Screening for child abuse at emergency departments: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2010;95:214-218.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19773222?tool=bestpractice.com 详细病史然后是精细检查,对确诊儿童身体虐待很关键。 由身体虐待引起的伤害范围包括青肿、各种骨折、口腔损伤、咬伤、头部和脊柱损伤、腹部损伤及烧伤。 临床医生面临的挑战就是鉴别人为损伤和意外损伤。 如在儿童身上发现一处或多处上述损伤则应进一步进行全面评估,寻找具有虐待典型特征的其他损伤。[61]Christian CW; Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect, American Academy of Pediatrics. The evaluation of suspected child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2015;135:e1337-e1354.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/135/5/e1337http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25917988?tool=bestpractice.com
遭受某种形式虐待的许多儿童会到急诊科或诊所就诊;但是,尚未发现目前使用的任何筛查标志物(例如,反复就诊、年龄、损伤类型)可足以精确地识别待进一步评估的儿童是否可能受到虐待或忽视。 因此,对于到急诊科或诊所就诊,伴有或不伴有虐待特异特征的受伤儿童,临床医生应高度怀疑该儿童是否受到虐待。[62]Woodman J, Lecky F, Hodes D, et al. Screening injured children for physical abuse or neglect in emergency departments: a systematic review. Child Care Health Dev. 2010;36:153-164.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20047596?tool=bestpractice.com
为协助专业人士确定哪些儿童会因虐待检查获益,以及减少儿童虐待检查的变异性,正在开发临床预测规则。 一个这样的临床预测规则(TEN-4 规则),对确定儿科重症监护人群中需进行虐待检查的高危青肿具有高度特异性和敏感性。[63]Pierce MC, Kaczor K, Aldridge S, et al. Bruising characteristics discriminating physical child abuse from accidental trauma. Pediatrics. 2010;125:67-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19969620?tool=bestpractice.com 儿童躯干、双耳、脖子或 4 个月以下婴儿 (TEN-4) 身体的任何部位如出现青肿应进行虐待评估。 已经验证了用于虐待性头部创伤的两条临床预测规则,对虐待性头部创伤的特异性和/或敏感性非常高。[64]Hymel KP, Armijo-Garcia V, Foster R, et al; Pediatric Brain Injury Research Network (PediBIRN) Investigators. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for pediatric abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1537-e1544.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/6/e1537.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404722?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Cowley LE, Morris CB, Maguire SA, et al. Validation of a prediction tool for abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;136:290-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216332?tool=bestpractice.com
提示非意外性伤害 (NAI) 的病史
确定儿童的损伤是意外还是虐待可能有挑战性。 详细病史应包括对损伤的解释。 下述注意事项可能有助于确诊 NAI:
创伤史与损伤不一致、改变病史或前后不一致、其他不明原因共存损伤或损伤既往史。
与儿童发育年龄不符的损伤(例如,如果儿童尚不能独立移动,他们不太可能因某些物体绊倒)。 详细的损伤机制可能有助于确定该解释是否与损伤和儿童发育水平一致。
社会服务中心已备案的儿童,特别是如果也存在父母/看护者危险因素时。
成长缓慢或发育迟滞。[44]Block RW, Krebs NF; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Failure to thrive as a manifestation of child neglect. Pediatrics. 2005;116:1234-1237.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/116/5/1234.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16264015?tool=bestpractice.com
亲子关系较差。
父母不适当地尝试为损伤开脱或辩解,或归咎于弟弟或妹妹或宠物。
为排除非虐待性原因,临床医生应询问围产期情况(包括与出生相关的创伤)、早产史、身体疾病治疗史和其他可能的医源性因素及药物史。 各种骨折或出血疾病的既往病史十分重要。 有关骨折、蓝巩膜及耳聋家族史的问题可帮助排除成骨不全症。[66]Bishop N, Sprigg A, Dalton A. Unexplained fractures in infancy: looking for fragile bones. Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:251-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17337685?tool=bestpractice.com 凝血异常或代谢疾病等其他家族史也十分重要。
确定儿童家人和/或看护者的全部相关信息(包括之前到初级保健或二级保健机构就诊)、先前是否在社会服务中心备案及家中其他成人和儿童的相关信息至关重要。 应注意是否有药物依赖史或前科。
头部损伤
脑损伤是最严重的身体虐待后果之一。 虐待性头部创伤 (AHT) 是最常见的致命性身体虐待原因,死亡率介于 11% 到 33% 之间。[67]Chiesa A, Duhaime AC. Abusive head trauma. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009;56:317-331.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19358918?tool=bestpractice.com 受伤后生还的患者中,高达三分之二的人留有长期残疾。[67]Chiesa A, Duhaime AC. Abusive head trauma. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009;56:317-331.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19358918?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Jayawant S, Rawlinson A, Gibbon F, et al. Subdural haemorrhages in infants: population based study. BMJ. 1998;317:1558-1561.http://www.bmj.com/content/317/7172/1558.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9836654?tool=bestpractice.com 一些儿童在到达医院之前死亡,所以首先由病理学家接触到。
仅摇晃、摇晃加撞击或仅撞击均可导致 AHT 及相关损伤。[16]Christian CW, Block R; Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect; American Academy of Pediatrics. Abusive head trauma in infants and children. Pediatrics. 2009;123:1409-1411.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/123/5/1409.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19403508?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Chiesa A, Duhaime AC. Abusive head trauma. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2009;56:317-331.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19358918?tool=bestpractice.com 主要特征包括重度神经损伤(昏迷)到惊厥发作、困倦、易怒、呕吐、食欲不佳及头围增大等症状。对因此类非特异性症状来就诊的儿童,识别是否受虐特别有挑战性,易导致漏诊。[69]Jenny C, Hymel KP, Ritzen A, et al. Analysis of missed cases of abusive head trauma. JAMA. 1999 Feb 17;281(7):621-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10029123?tool=bestpractice.com
区分 AHT 与意外头部损伤时需要仔细解释与体征和症状有关的病史。[70]Maguire S, Pickerd N, Farewell D, et al. Which clinical features distinguish inflicted from non-inflicted brain injury? A systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2009;94:860-867.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19531526?tool=bestpractice.com 为降低 AHT 漏诊,开发了临床预测规则。 基于这些经过验证的工具,应当引起对 AHT 严重关注的特征包括:
1 岁以下儿童硬膜下出血[15]Keenan HT, Runyan DK, Marshall SW, et al. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA. 2003;290:621-626.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=197032http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12902365?tool=bestpractice.com
双侧或大脑两半球间硬膜下出血[64]Hymel KP, Armijo-Garcia V, Foster R, et al; Pediatric Brain Injury Research Network (PediBIRN) Investigators. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for pediatric abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1537-e1544.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/6/e1537.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404722?tool=bestpractice.com
显著头部损伤,而无法解释损伤原因,或解释为从不太高处跌倒(小于 150 cm)或受到轻微损伤
同时有呼吸暂停或一些其他形式的急性呼吸损伤[64]Hymel KP, Armijo-Garcia V, Foster R, et al; Pediatric Brain Injury Research Network (PediBIRN) Investigators. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for pediatric abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1537-e1544.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/6/e1537.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404722?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Cowley LE, Morris CB, Maguire SA, et al. Validation of a prediction tool for abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;136:290-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216332?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Maguire SA, Kemp AM, Lumb RC, et al. Estimating the probability of abusive head trauma: a pooled analysis. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e550-e564.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21844052?tool=bestpractice.com
同时有头部或颈部青肿[64]Hymel KP, Armijo-Garcia V, Foster R, et al; Pediatric Brain Injury Research Network (PediBIRN) Investigators. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for pediatric abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1537-e1544.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/6/e1537.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404722?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Cowley LE, Morris CB, Maguire SA, et al. Validation of a prediction tool for abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;136:290-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216332?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Maguire SA, Kemp AM, Lumb RC, et al. Estimating the probability of abusive head trauma: a pooled analysis. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e550-e564.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21844052?tool=bestpractice.com
同时有躯干青肿[64]Hymel KP, Armijo-Garcia V, Foster R, et al; Pediatric Brain Injury Research Network (PediBIRN) Investigators. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for pediatric abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1537-e1544.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/6/e1537.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404722?tool=bestpractice.com
视网膜出血[65]Cowley LE, Morris CB, Maguire SA, et al. Validation of a prediction tool for abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;136:290-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216332?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Maguire SA, Kemp AM, Lumb RC, et al. Estimating the probability of abusive head trauma: a pooled analysis. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e550-e564.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21844052?tool=bestpractice.com
肋骨或长骨骨折[65]Cowley LE, Morris CB, Maguire SA, et al. Validation of a prediction tool for abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;136:290-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216332?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Maguire SA, Kemp AM, Lumb RC, et al. Estimating the probability of abusive head trauma: a pooled analysis. Pediatrics. 2011;128:e550-e564.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21844052?tool=bestpractice.com
除单纯性线性颅顶骨折之外的各种颅骨骨折[64]Hymel KP, Armijo-Garcia V, Foster R, et al; Pediatric Brain Injury Research Network (PediBIRN) Investigators. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for pediatric abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1537-e1544.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/6/e1537.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404722?tool=bestpractice.com
无癫痫发作或发热既往史的癫痫发作。[65]Cowley LE, Morris CB, Maguire SA, et al. Validation of a prediction tool for abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;136:290-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216332?tool=bestpractice.com
颅骨骨折在非虐待和虐待中均普遍存在。 两种情况下最常见的骨折类型均为线性颅顶骨折。
多层视网膜中的视网膜出血并延伸至周围对 AHT 具有高度特异性,可见于约 85% 病例。[17]Hobbs C, Childs AM, Wynne J, et al. Subdural haematoma and effusion in infancy: an epidemiological study. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:952-955.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1720567/pdf/v090p00952.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16113132?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Kemp AM, Stoodley N, Cobley C, et al. Apnoea and brain swelling in non-accidental head injury. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:472-476.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1763133/pdf/v088p00472.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12765909?tool=bestpractice.com[19]Vinchon M, Defoort-Dhellemmes S, Desurmont M, et al. Accidental and nonaccidental head injuries in infants: a prospective study. J Neurosurg. 2005;102(4 Suppl):380-384.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15926388?tool=bestpractice.com[72]Bhardwaj G, Chowdhury V, Jacobs MB, et al. A systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of ocular signs in pediatric abusive head trauma. Ophthalmology. 2010;117:983-992;e17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20347153?tool=bestpractice.com 局限于后极的少量视网膜出血被认为无特异性。[73]Bechtel K, Stoessel K, Leventhal JM, et al. Characteristics that distinguish accidental from abusive injury in hospitalized young children with head trauma. Pediatrics. 2004;114:165-168.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15231923?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Hobbs C, Childs AM, Wynne J, et al. Subdural haematoma and effusion in infancy: an epidemiological study. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:952-955.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1720567/pdf/v090p00952.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16113132?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Kemp AM, Stoodley N, Cobley C, et al. Apnoea and brain swelling in non-accidental head injury. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:472-476.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1763133/pdf/v088p00472.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12765909?tool=bestpractice.com[19]Vinchon M, Defoort-Dhellemmes S, Desurmont M, et al. Accidental and nonaccidental head injuries in infants: a prospective study. J Neurosurg. 2005;102(4 Suppl):380-384.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15926388?tool=bestpractice.com 应考虑到视网膜出血的其他医学原因(例如产伤、凝血障碍、一氧化碳中毒),这些疾病可经诊断试验予以确诊。也有记录显示,意外高冲击强度创伤后会发生视网膜出血,病史检查时这种意外创伤应该较明显。6 周以下婴儿出生后可能有轻微视网膜出血,特别是在真空吸引或其他器具助产后。[74]Hughes LA, May K, Talbot JF, et al. Incidence, distribution, and duration of birth-related retinal hemorrhages: a prospective study. J AAPOS. 2006 Apr;10(2):102-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16678742?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,与这些医学原因有关的视网膜出血与人为显著创伤的视网膜出血明显不同。
硬膜下出血是 AHT 中最常见的颅内损伤,可能合并其他轴外出血或大脑本身的损伤。 身体虐待是 1 岁以下儿童硬膜下出血的最常见原因。[15]Keenan HT, Runyan DK, Marshall SW, et al. A population-based study of inflicted traumatic brain injury in young children. JAMA. 2003;290:621-626.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=197032http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12902365?tool=bestpractice.com AHT 中硬膜下出血通常较小且具有多发性。[20]Ewing-Cobbs L, Prasad M, Kramer L, et al. Acute neuroradiologic findings in young children with inflicted or noninflicted traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst. 2000;16:25-34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10672426?tool=bestpractice.com 它们通常发生在凸面上方和大脑纵裂中。[21]Datta S, Stoodley N, Jayawant S, et al. Neuroradiological aspects of subdural haemorrhages. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:947-951.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16113131?tool=bestpractice.com CT 或 MRI 检查可能发现密度不同或密度有混合性。[75]Vinchon M, Noulé N, Tchofo PJ, et al. Imaging of head injuries in infants: temporal correlates and forensic implications for the diagnosis of child abuse. J Neurosurg. 2004;101(2 Suppl):44-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16206971?tool=bestpractice.com
蛛网膜下腔出血等其他颅内出血可与 AHT 硬膜下出血并存。[20]Ewing-Cobbs L, Prasad M, Kramer L, et al. Acute neuroradiologic findings in young children with inflicted or noninflicted traumatic brain injury. Childs Nerv Syst. 2000;16:25-34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10672426?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Datta S, Stoodley N, Jayawant S, et al. Neuroradiological aspects of subdural haemorrhages. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90:947-951.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16113131?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,硬膜外出血更常见于意外颅脑创伤。[76]Shugerman RP, Paez A, Grossman DC, et al. Epidural hemorrhage: is it abuse? Pediatrics. 1996;97:664-668.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8628604?tool=bestpractice.com
与意外性头部创伤相比,大脑本身的损伤(如缺氧缺血性损伤)更常见于 AHT。[22]Ichord RN, Naim M, Pollock AN, et al. Hypoxic-ischemic injury complicates inflicted and accidental traumatic brain injury in young children: the role of diffusion-weighted imaging. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24:106-118.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17263674?tool=bestpractice.com
脊柱损伤
尽管脊柱损伤在受身体虐待的儿童中并不常见,但其后果具有毁灭性。[77]Gabos PG, Tuten HR, Leet A, et al. Fracture-dislocation of the lumbar spine in an abused child. Pediatrics. 1998;101:473-477.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9481017?tool=bestpractice.com[78]Katz JS, Oluigbo CO, Wilkinson CC, et al. Prevalence of cervical spine injury in infants with head trauma. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2010;5:470-473.http://thejns.org/doi/full/10.3171/2009.11.PEDS09291http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20433260?tool=bestpractice.com 对于存在严重虐待损伤(例如,AHT)幼儿,均应考虑到脊柱损伤。难以估计脊柱损伤伴 AHT 的真实患病率,因为脊柱症状通常被意识丧失所掩盖。Hangman 骨折等不稳定性脊柱骨折可能因虐待所致,并导致需要神经外科急诊。[79]Oral R, Rahhal R, Elshershari H, et al. Intentional avulsion fracture of the second cervical vertebra in a hypotonic child. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2006;22:352-354.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16714964?tool=bestpractice.com
可能仅有单独的肌肉骨骼病变或脊髓病变,或二者均有。[79]Oral R, Rahhal R, Elshershari H, et al. Intentional avulsion fracture of the second cervical vertebra in a hypotonic child. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2006;22:352-354.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16714964?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Diamond P, Hansen CM, Christofersen MR. Child abuse presenting as a thoracolumbar spinal fracture dislocation: a case report. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1994;10:83-86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8029116?tool=bestpractice.com 在年龄较小的婴儿(平均年龄 5 月龄)中,脊柱病变可能见于颈椎,一般伴有虐待性颅脑外伤,而在年龄较大的学步儿童(平均年龄 14 月龄)中,脊柱病变可见于胸腰椎。[81]Kemp AM, Joshi AH, Mann M, et al. What are the clinical and radiological characteristics of spinal injuries from physical abuse: a systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2010;95:355-360.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19946011?tool=bestpractice.com
儿童可能表现为脊椎骨折部位上方骨压痛或可归因于脊髓束的特异性神经系统征象,如截瘫、四肢瘫痪、失禁或脊髓损伤平面以下没有知觉。 大龄儿童如出现原因不明的脊柱后凸也应怀疑先前受到虐待。[82]Cullen JC. Spinal lesions in battered babies. J Bone Joint Surg (Br). 1975;57-B:364-366.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1158948?tool=bestpractice.com
腹部损伤
虽然腹部损伤似乎较罕见,但死亡率和发病率高。[83]Barnes PM, Norton CM, Dunstan FD, et al. Abdominal injury due to child abuse. Lancet. 2005;366:234-235.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16023514?tool=bestpractice.com 主要见于 5 岁以下儿童。 具有虐待性腹部创伤的儿童通常不会表现为特异性腹部创伤史,但可能表现为恶心、呕吐、意识丧失和/或急腹症等非特异性症状。 经常会延迟就诊。 腹部损伤偶尔可能被头部损伤症状和体征所掩盖。 因虐待所致的最具特异性的腹部钝伤是空腔性脏器损伤,这种损伤通常伴有其他腹部损伤(例如小肠和脾损伤)或伴有青肿、骨折、系带撕裂、头部损伤、咬伤及烧伤。 实体器官损伤在人为的和意外的腹部创伤中均常见。[23]Wood J, Rubin DM, Nance ML, et al. Distinguishing inflicted versus accidental abdominal injuries in young children. J Trauma. 2005;59:1203-1208.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16385300?tool=bestpractice.com 腹部上方青肿仅在少数病例中可见。
意外腹部损伤通常发生于机动车事故或严重跌倒之后,经常与实体器官损伤有关。[84]Wegner S, Colletti JE, Van Wie D. Pediatric blunt abdominal trauma. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2006;53:243-256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16574524?tool=bestpractice.com
骨折
遭受儿童身体虐待的 2 岁以下儿童中,高达三分之一的患儿发生骨折。[85]Belfer RA, Klein BL, Orr L. Use of the skeletal survey in the evaluation of child maltreatment. Am J Emerg Med. 2001;19:122-124.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11239255?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Leventhal JM, Thomas SA, Rosenfield NS, et al. Fractures in young children. Distinguishing child abuse from unintentional injuries. Am J Dis Child. 1993;147:87-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8418609?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Kemp AM, Dunstan F, Harrison S, et al. Patterns of skeletal fractures in child abuse: systematic review. BMJ. 2008;337:a1518.http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a1518.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18832412?tool=bestpractice.com 它们通常具有隐匿性且临床上不会引起怀疑。 虐待性骨折主要发生于婴幼儿;相比之下,事故后骨折更常见于学龄期儿童。[88]Worlock P, Stower M, Barbor P. Patterns of fractures in accidental and non-accidental injury in children: a comparative study. BMJ. 1986;293:100-102.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1340839/pdf/bmjcred00242-0016.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3089406?tool=bestpractice.com 会走路之前的儿童如发生任何长骨骨折均应有明确的意外损伤解释,如果没有意外原因,就应主动排除虐待。
据报告,身体的每一块骨头或每一组骨头都会因虐待发生骨折。
没有严重创伤或病理原因的情况下,肋骨骨折是婴儿虐待最强的预测因子,是挤压胸部或直接击打所致。[24]Bulloch B, Schubert CJ, Brophy PD, et al. Cause and clinical characteristics of rib fractures in infants. Pediatrics. 2000;105:e48.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/105/4/e48.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10742369?tool=bestpractice.com 它们具有典型的多发性,可发生在肋骨上任何一点。[87]Kemp AM, Dunstan F, Harrison S, et al. Patterns of skeletal fractures in child abuse: systematic review. BMJ. 2008;337:a1518.http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a1518.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18832412?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Barsness KA, Cha ES, Bensard DD, et al. The positive predictive value of rib fractures as an indicator of nonaccidental trauma in children. J Trauma. 2003;54:1107-1110.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12813330?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Garcia VF, Gotschall CS, Eichelberger MR, et al. Rib fractures in children: a marker of severe trauma. J Trauma. 1990;30:695-700.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2352299?tool=bestpractice.com[91]Thomas PS. Rib fractures in infancy. Ann Radiol (Paris). 1977;20:115-120.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/557946?tool=bestpractice.com[92]Strouse PJ, Owings CL. Fractures of the first rib in child abuse. Radiology. 1995;197:763-765.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7480753?tool=bestpractice.com[93]Schweich P, Fleisher G. Rib fractures in children. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1985;1:187-189.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3842163?tool=bestpractice.com[94]Cadzow SP, Armstrong KL. Rib fractures in infants: Red alert! The clinical features, investigations and child protection outcomes. J Paediatr Child Health. 2000;36:322-326.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10940163?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Bulloch B, Schubert CJ, Brophy PD, et al. Cause and clinical characteristics of rib fractures in infants. Pediatrics. 2000;105:e48.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/105/4/e48.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10742369?tool=bestpractice.com
会走路前儿童长骨骨折很可能是因为遭受虐待,但偶尔也可见于意外损伤。 看护者提供的病史应符合意外损伤情境中的骨折机制。[25]Thomas SA, Rosenfield NS, Leventhal JM, et al. Long bone fractures in young children: distinguishing accidental injuries from child abuse. Pediatrics. 1991;88:471-476.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1881725?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Scherl SA, Miller L, Lively N, et al. Accidental and non-accidental femur fractures in children. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2000;376:96-105.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10906863?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Schwend RM, Werth C, Johnston A. Femur shaft fractures in toddlers and young children: rarely from child abuse. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000;20:475-481.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10912603?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Blakemore LC, Loder RT, Hensinger RN. Role of intentional abuse in children 1 to 5 years old with isolated femoral shaft fractures. J Pediatr Orthop. 1996;16:585-588.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8865041?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Dalton HJ, Slovis T, Helfer RE, et al. Undiagnosed abuse in children younger than 3 years with femoral fracture. Am J Dis Child. 1990;144:875-878.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2378333?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Strait RT, Seigel RM, Shapiro RA. Humeral fractures without obvious etiologies in children less than 3 years of age: when is it abuse? Pediatrics. 1995;96:667-671.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7567328?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Shaw BA, Murphy KM, Shaw A, et al. Humerus shaft fractures in young children: accident or abuse? J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17:293-297.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9150014?tool=bestpractice.com 会走路的儿童在具有适当损伤史的情况下如发生长骨骨折,通常是意外。
1 岁以下婴儿的典型的干骺端病变(也被称为干骺部骨折、拐角骨折、或桶柄状骨折)高度提示虐待。[95]Kleinman PK. Diagnostic imaging of child abuse. Maryland Heights, MO: Mosby; 1998. 这些骨折是肢体受到强力甩打、拉伸或扭曲导致干骺端剪应变所致。[96]Kleinman PK. Problems in the diagnosis of metaphyseal fractures. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;(38 Suppl 3):S388-S394.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18470447?tool=bestpractice.com
肱骨髁上骨折在意外跌倒中极其常见。[97]Farnsworth CL, Silva PD, Mubarak SJ. Etiology of supracondylar humerus fractures. J Pediatr Orthop. 1998;18:38-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9449099?tool=bestpractice.com
单纯性线性颅骨骨折在虐待性和非虐待性损伤中比例相同。 然而,分离的、复杂的与伴有其他损伤的颅骨骨折在人为损伤中更为普遍。[86]Leventhal JM, Thomas SA, Rosenfield NS, et al. Fractures in young children. Distinguishing child abuse from unintentional injuries. Am J Dis Child. 1993;147:87-92.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8418609?tool=bestpractice.com[98]Meservy CJ, Towbin R, McLaurin RL, et al. Radiographic characteristics of skull fractures resulting from child abuse. Am J Roentgenol. 1987;149:173-175.http://www.ajronline.org/doi/pdf/10.2214/ajr.149.1.173http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3495978?tool=bestpractice.com[99]Reece RM, Sege R. Childhood head injuries: accidental or inflicted? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000;154:11-15.http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/154/1/11http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10632244?tool=bestpractice.com
虐待性骨折鉴别诊断包括意外创伤、成骨不全症、早产儿骨质减少、导致骨脆病的罕见代谢疾病及产伤。[100]Pandya NK, Baldwin K, Kamath AF, et al. Unexplained fractures: child abuse or bone disease? A systematic review. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2011;469:805-812.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/20878560/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20878560?tool=bestpractice.com
出现骨折时,骨科医生和儿童虐待儿科医生应参与疑似儿童身体虐待病例处理,尤其当骨折患者小于 3 岁(特别是小于 1 岁)时。[101]Sink EL, Hyman JE, Matheny T, et al. Child abuse: the role of the orthopaedic surgeon in nonaccidental trauma. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2011;469:790-797.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmid/20941649/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20941649?tool=bestpractice.com
口腔损伤
可能很难区分意外和非意外口腔损伤。 应全面检查口腔,任何牙齿缺失或异常均应予以记录。 了解儿童牙齿是否正常并警惕微妙变化(例如牙齿颜色发生变化)也很重要。 报告的最常见口腔损伤为唇青紫或裂伤。[37]Naidoo S. A profile of the oro-facial injuries in child physical abuse at a children's hospital. Child Abuse Negl. 2000;24:521-534.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10798841?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Becker DB, Needleman HL, Kotelchuck M. Child abuse and dentistry: orofacial trauma and its recognition by dentists. J Am Dent Assoc. 1978;97:24-28.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28343?tool=bestpractice.com 其他可能的口腔损伤包括:
系带撕裂
如查出,通常与重度或致命性损伤(通常是头部损伤)有关。[32]Thackeray JD. Frena tears and abusive head injury: a cautionary tale. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007;23:735-737.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18090110?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Cordner SM, Burke MP, Dodd MJ, et al. Issues in child homicides: 11 cases. Legal Medicine. 2001;3:95-103.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12935529?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Grace A, Grace S. Child abuse within the ear, nose and throat. J Otolaryngol. 1987;16:108-111.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3599153?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Maguire S, Hunter B, Hunter L, et al; Welsh Child Protection Systematic Review Group. Diagnosing abuse: a systematic review of torn frenum and other intra-oral injuries. Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:1113-1117.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2066066/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17468129?tool=bestpractice.com 脸颊、双耳、颈部或躯干如出现不明原因青肿,伴有系带撕裂,应怀疑为虐待所致,有必要进行全面的儿童保护调查。系带撕裂可能因强行喂食婴儿所致,但只在直接殴打后有过明确报告。[35]Maguire S, Hunter B, Hunter L, et al; Welsh Child Protection Systematic Review Group. Diagnosing abuse: a systematic review of torn frenum and other intra-oral injuries. Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:1113-1117.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2066066/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17468129?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Tate RJ. Facial injuries associated with the battered child syndrome. Br J Oral Surg. 1971;9:41-45.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5315395?tool=bestpractice.com 伴有大量明显出血(混合唾液和血液)。
不能总是认定“孤立的”系带撕裂(例如已排除骨折或头部损伤等其他任何隐性损伤和不存在其他危险因素)是虐待导致的。 它也可能是意外直接击打(例如秋千打到嘴部、摔破脸、运动损伤)所致。 曾经报告过试行插管期间发生系带撕裂。
牙齿损伤
如对任何牙齿损伤有所怀疑,建议征求儿科牙医的意见。 虐待性牙齿损伤包括强行侵入、挤压、拔除健康的恒牙及微折。[37]Naidoo S. A profile of the oro-facial injuries in child physical abuse at a children's hospital. Child Abuse Negl. 2000;24:521-534.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10798841?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Becker DB, Needleman HL, Kotelchuck M. Child abuse and dentistry: orofacial trauma and its recognition by dentists. J Am Dent Assoc. 1978;97:24-28.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28343?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Schuman NJ, Hamilton RL. Discovery of child abuse with associated dental fracture in a hospital-affiliated clinic: report of a case with a four-year follow up. Spec Care Dent. 1982;2:250-251.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6960496?tool=bestpractice.com 已经知道有些父母会强行拔掉他们孩子的健康牙齿,作为一种“惩罚”。[40]Carrotte PV. An unusual case of child abuse. Br Dental J. 1990;168:444-445.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2361086?tool=bestpractice.com 医生可能不会立即注意到一些牙齿损伤(例如,先前微折牙齿变灰色或恒牙缺失)。
先前牙齿损伤、大量未经治疗的龋齿或患有齿龈疾病后如不及时带儿童就医,则可能表示牙齿忽视,也应怀疑虐待。 父母可能低估牙齿忽视的程度,但这些问题会导致儿童产生相当大的疼痛。 牙齿忽视也可能反映不适当饮食摄入。
具有牙齿损伤的儿童中,高达 50% 为意外损伤,通常为跌倒或运动损伤所致。[102]Andreasen JO. Challenges in clinical dental traumatology. Endodont Dent Traumatol. 1985;1:45-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3861314?tool=bestpractice.com 牙齿变灰色也可能伴有牙质生长不全(特别是与成骨不全症有关时),这是一种会导致复发性牙折的疾病。
青肿
青肿是儿童在正常的日常活动中出现的最常见的意外损伤之一。 但是,青肿也是最常见的身体虐待的表现。[103]McMahon P, Grossman W, Gaffney M, et al. Soft-tissue injury as an indication of child abuse. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77-A:1179-1183.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7642662?tool=bestpractice.com 鉴别这些原因至关重要。[104]Ward MG, Ornstein A, Niec A, et al; Canadian Pediatric Society. The medical assessment of bruising in suspected child maltreatment cases: a clinical perspective. Paediatr Child Health. 2013;18:433-442.http://www.cps.ca/en/documents/position/medical-assessment-of-bruisinghttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24426797?tool=bestpractice.com
意外性青肿
典型地出现于独立移动儿童的身体前部和骨突起部位。[105]Sugar NF, Taylor JA, Feldman KW. Bruises in infants and toddlers; those who don't cruise rarely bruise. Puget Sound Pediatric Research Network. Arch Paediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153:399-403.http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/153/4/399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10201724?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Carpenter RF. The prevalence and distribution of bruising in babies. Arch Dis Child. 1999;80:363-366.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10086945?tool=bestpractice.com 青肿主要位于双腿和胫骨。在背部、臀部、前臂、脸颊或面部、双耳、腹部或髋部、上臂、小腿后侧、足或手等部位,青肿并不常见。[107]Dunstan FD, Guildea ZE, Kontos K, et al. A scoring system for bruise patterns: a tool for identifying abuse. Arch Dis Child. 2002;86:330-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1751094/pdf/v086p00330.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11970921?tool=bestpractice.com 2 岁以下的儿童中,手部青肿极其罕见,如发现青肿,则应对损伤进行明确解释。
与虐待性青肿(可见于脸颊、耳部、颈部或眶周区域)对比,意外性头部青肿通常更常见于前额、鼻子、上唇或颏部。[108]Chang LT, Tsai MC. Craniofacial injuries from slip, trip, and fall accidents of children. J Trauma. 2007;63:70-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17622871?tool=bestpractice.com 与虐待性挫伤不同(见于脸颊、耳部、颈部或眶周区域)。[107]Dunstan FD, Guildea ZE, Kontos K, et al. A scoring system for bruise patterns: a tool for identifying abuse. Arch Dis Child. 2002;86:330-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1751094/pdf/v086p00330.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11970921?tool=bestpractice.com
尽管意外性青肿随年龄增长而增多,但发育阶段却更常见意外性青肿。 尚不会爬行或独立移动的婴儿中不到 1% 有青肿(通常与产伤有关),而婴儿扶着家具行走而造成的青肿发生率为 17%。 不经协助即可行走的儿童中,则增至 52%。[105]Sugar NF, Taylor JA, Feldman KW. Bruises in infants and toddlers; those who don't cruise rarely bruise. Puget Sound Pediatric Research Network. Arch Paediatr Adolesc Med. 1999;153:399-403.http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/153/4/399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10201724?tool=bestpractice.com[106]Carpenter RF. The prevalence and distribution of bruising in babies. Arch Dis Child. 1999;80:363-366.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10086945?tool=bestpractice.com
非意外性青肿
在受虐儿童中,头部和面部是最常见的青肿部位,[107]Dunstan FD, Guildea ZE, Kontos K, et al. A scoring system for bruise patterns: a tool for identifying abuse. Arch Dis Child. 2002;86:330-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1751094/pdf/v086p00330.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11970921?tool=bestpractice.com[109]Atwal GS, Rutty GN, Carter N, et al. Bruising in non-accidental head injured children; a retrospective study of the prevalence, distribution and pathological associations in 24 cases. Forensic Sci Int. 1998;96:215-230.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9854835?tool=bestpractice.com[110]de Silva S, Oates RK. Child homicide - the extreme of child abuse. Med J Aust. 1993;158:300-301.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8474367?tool=bestpractice.com 伴有臀部和软组织青肿。应仔细检查头皮是否有青肿,因为这些青肿可能伴有创伤性脑损伤;11% 的具有虐待性头部损伤的儿童表现为面部或头皮青肿。[111]Ghahreman A, Bhasin V, Chaseling R, et al. Nonaccidental head injuries in children: a Sydney experience. J Neurosurg. 2005;103:213-218.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16238073?tool=bestpractice.com TEN-4 规则是一种用于确定高风险青肿的高度特异性和敏感性临床预测规则。 它要求对儿科重症监护人群进行虐待检查。[63]Pierce MC, Kaczor K, Aldridge S, et al. Bruising characteristics discriminating physical child abuse from accidental trauma. Pediatrics. 2010;125:67-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19969620?tool=bestpractice.com 儿童躯干、双耳、脖子或 4 个月以下婴儿 (TEN-4) 身体的任何部位如出现青肿应进行虐待评估。
虐待性青肿经常成簇出现,可能显示出一种防御性损伤(例如,前臂和大腿外侧青肿)。[112]Brinkmann B, Puschel K, Matzsch T. Forensic dermatological aspects of the battered child syndrome. Aktuelle Derm. 1979;5:217-232.[113]Murty OP, Ming CJ, Ezani MA, et al. Physical injuries in fatal and non-fatal child abuse cases: a review of 16 years with hands on experience of 2 years in Malaysia. Int J Med Toxicol Legal Med. 2006;9:33-43.[114]Sussman SJ. Skin manifestations of the battered-child syndrome. J Paediatr. 1968;72:99-101.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5634943?tool=bestpractice.com 虐待性青肿可能反映所使用物体(例如,皮带搭扣、狗脖套)的正面或反面图案或呈现散在擦伤(例如在绳索损伤中)。
与没有受到虐待的儿童身上发现的青肿相比,虐待性青肿往往更大,数目更多。 瘀点伴青肿与虐待显著相关。[115]Nayak K, Spencer N, Shenoy M, et al. How useful is the presence of petechiae in distinguishing non-accidental from accidental injury? Child Abuse Negl. 2006;30:549-555.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16698081?tool=bestpractice.com
头部或腹部损伤所致的严重(甚至致命的)虐待可能不伴有青肿的任何外部证据。[116]Smith SM, Hanson R. 134 battered children: a medical and psychological study. Br Med J. 1974;3:666-670.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1611652/pdf/brmedj01996-0040.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4425793?tool=bestpractice.com 骨折不一定伴有任何外部青肿。[117]Peters ML, Starling SP, Barnes-Eley ML, et al. The presence of bruising associated with fractures. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2008;162:877-881.http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=380109http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18762607?tool=bestpractice.com
咬伤
儿童咬伤可见于意外损伤(例如,学步儿童中儿童与儿童之间的咬伤)和虐待损伤。[118]Baker MD, Moore SE. Human bites in children. A six-year experience. Am J Dis Child. 1987;141:1285-1290.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3687869?tool=bestpractice.com 任何成人(或大龄儿童)如咬住儿童足以留下牙齿印记则会造成虐待损伤。
虐待咬伤可能存在于幼儿臂部、腿部、背部、肩部及臀部。[119]Freeman AJ, Senn DR, Arendt DM. Seven hundred seventy eight bite marks: analysis by anatomic location, victim and biter demographics, type of crime, and legal disposition. J Forens Sci. 2005;50:1436-1443.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16382842?tool=bestpractice.com 青少年如遭受性虐待可能被咬伤胸部和颈部,就像在成人攻击中一样。 任何与牙痕对应的伴有凹痕的椭圆形或圆形病损均应被视为潜在的咬痕。[120]American Board of Forensic Odontology. ID & bitemark guidelines. 2008. http://www.abfo.org/ (last accessed 11 November 2016).http://www.abfo.org/resources/id-bitemark-guidelines/
鉴别儿童咬伤与成人咬伤具有挑战性。 如果尖牙间距离 > 3 cm,则咬伤更可能是因成人所致;如尖牙间距离 < 2.5 cm,则更可能是幼儿(乳牙)所致,但牙齿异常的部分成人可能会留下类似的小印记。[121]Levine LJ. Bite marks in child abuse. In: Sanger RG, Bross DC, eds. Clinical management of child abuse and neglect. Chicago, IL: Quintessence; 1984:53-59. 但是,大约在 12 岁左右就可长为成人牙齿,因此区分成人与大龄儿童会有些困难。
儿童在受虐待期间被迫抑制哭闹可能会咬伤他们自己。 受虐儿童也可能咬伤袭击者;咬痕可能与其牙齿匹配。[119]Freeman AJ, Senn DR, Arendt DM. Seven hundred seventy eight bite marks: analysis by anatomic location, victim and biter demographics, type of crime, and legal disposition. J Forens Sci. 2005;50:1436-1443.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16382842?tool=bestpractice.com
有时,儿童会被动物咬伤:最常见的是狗、猫及雪貂。 动物咬伤通常属于撕裂损伤。 如果病变具有刺破伤(因犬齿所致)伴有撕裂损伤,而不是肉体压缩。它更可能是因食肉动物所致。[122]Whittaker DK, MacDonald DG. Bitemarks in flesh. In: A colour atlas of forensic dentistry. London, UK: Wolfe Medical Publications; 1989:108.
中毒
中毒可与编造或诱导的疾病有关。 在摄入大量药物的情况下,如果儿童中毒或如果没有摄入史或存在与临床表现不一致的少量毒药摄入史,应怀疑故意投毒。 最常见的故意投毒药物包括开给家庭成员的药物(例如抗惊厥药、抗抑郁药、铁剂、泻药或胰岛素)以及盐、催吐剂及非法娱乐性药物。[123]Yin S. Malicious use of pharmaceuticals in children. J Pediatr. 2010;157:832-836;e1.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20650468?tool=bestpractice.com
意外中毒主要表现为摄入少量家用产品或药物。 儿童应立即由父母或看护者带至医院就诊,父母或看护者应能够提供该儿童摄入史或该儿童被发现在敞开式毒物容器附近逗留的相关情况。
如果就诊时经常声称“意外”摄入,应怀疑照顾不够或家庭中缺乏安全措施造成儿童忽视。
烧伤
烫伤
童年时期最常见的烧伤(虐待性和意外性)是烫伤。 幼童只需一秒钟即会在 60°C (140°F) 液体中被全层烫伤。[124]Dressler DP, Hozid JL. Thermal injury and child abuse: the medical evidence dilemma. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2001;22:180-185.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11302607?tool=bestpractice.com[125]Feldman KW. Help needed on hot water burns. Pediatrics. 1983;71:145-146.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6848972?tool=bestpractice.com 男孩更易发生烫伤,不管是故意还是意外烫伤。[126]Hobbs CJ. When are burns not accidental? Arch Dis Child. 1986;61:357-361.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1777757/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3707186?tool=bestpractice.com[127]Yeoh C, Nixon JW, Dickson W, et al. Patterns of scald injuries. Arch Dis Child. 1994;71:156-158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1029951/pdf/archdisch00568-0056.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7944540?tool=bestpractice.com
意外烫伤通常是因“溢出”事件(例如,儿童抬起手并靠近装满热液体的杯子或锅)所致。[124]Dressler DP, Hozid JL. Thermal injury and child abuse: the medical evidence dilemma. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2001;22:180-185.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11302607?tool=bestpractice.com[128]Daria S, Sugar NF, Feldman KW, et al. Into hot water head first: distribution of intentional and unintentional immersion burns. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2004;20:302-310.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15123901?tool=bestpractice.com 病史是鉴别意外烫伤和虐待烫伤的关键,了解哪些年龄的儿童能够进行某些行动(例如,无他人在场的情况下爬进浴盆)很重要。[129]Allasio D, Fischer H. Immersion scald burns and the ability of young children to climb into a bathtub. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1419-1421.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15867058?tool=bestpractice.com 意外确实会发生,尽管特定模式的损伤可能似乎不太可能,但可通过儿童当时的行为来解释(例如,如果儿童正在“学步”,液体聚集可能导致大面积损伤)。[130]Johnson CF, Ericson AK, Caniano D. Walker-related burns in infants and toddlers. Pediatr Emerg Care. 1990;6:58-61.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2320488?tool=bestpractice.com 意外浸没式烫伤偶尔也可能发生。 通常,意外烫伤具有下述特征:
分布:意外烫伤通常累及面部、头部、颈部、上躯干及一个上肢。[126]Hobbs CJ. When are burns not accidental? Arch Dis Child. 1986;61:357-361.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1777757/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3707186?tool=bestpractice.com[131]Sheridan RL. Recognition and management of hot liquid aspiration in children. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;27:89-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8572457?tool=bestpractice.com
模式:混合型深度、浅二度、伴有第一接触部位最深烧伤(通常是面部、颈部或上躯干)及身体越往下,烫伤越浅。[126]Hobbs CJ. When are burns not accidental? Arch Dis Child. 1986;61:357-361.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1777757/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3707186?tool=bestpractice.com[131]Sheridan RL. Recognition and management of hot liquid aspiration in children. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;27:89-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8572457?tool=bestpractice.com 轮廓很可能不规则,无明显边界。[124]Dressler DP, Hozid JL. Thermal injury and child abuse: the medical evidence dilemma. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2001;22:180-185.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11302607?tool=bestpractice.com 意外流水烫伤可能具有不规则边界和不对称性肢体累及。[132]Titus MO, Baxter AL, Starling SP. Accidental scald burns in sinks. Pediatrics. 2003;111:e191-e194.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/111/2/e191.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12563095?tool=bestpractice.com
程度:差别很大,主要取决于所涉及的液体量和给予的急救速度和适当性。
故意烫伤一般表现为浸没式损伤,相对于其他液体,最常是热水所致。[124]Dressler DP, Hozid JL. Thermal injury and child abuse: the medical evidence dilemma. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2001;22:180-185.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11302607?tool=bestpractice.com[128]Daria S, Sugar NF, Feldman KW, et al. Into hot water head first: distribution of intentional and unintentional immersion burns. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2004;20:302-310.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15123901?tool=bestpractice.com[133]Ayoub C, Pfeifer D. Burns as a manifestation of child abuse and neglect. Am J Dis Child. 1979;133:910-914.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/474542?tool=bestpractice.com 如果怀疑烧伤为故意烧伤,必须进一步询问儿童更广泛的社会史/医学史。[127]Yeoh C, Nixon JW, Dickson W, et al. Patterns of scald injuries. Arch Dis Child. 1994;71:156-158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1029951/pdf/archdisch00568-0056.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7944540?tool=bestpractice.com[128]Daria S, Sugar NF, Feldman KW, et al. Into hot water head first: distribution of intentional and unintentional immersion burns. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2004;20:302-310.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15123901?tool=bestpractice.com[134]Zaloga WF, Collins KA. Pediatric homicides related to burn injury: a retrospective review at the Medical University of South Carolina. J Forensic Sci. 2006;51:396-399.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16566778?tool=bestpractice.com[135]Phillips PS, Pickrell E, Morse TS. Intentional burning: a severe form of child abuse. J Am Coll Emerg Phys. 1974;3:388-390. 此外,家庭访视可能提供基本信息(例如,家用热水温度、推测儿童会达到/爬上去的表面高度)。怀疑人为烧伤的所有 2 岁以下儿童应进行全面的骨骼检查,因为人为烧伤中有报告过隐性骨折。[136]Hicks RA, Stolfi A. Skeletal surveys in children with burns caused by child abuse. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2007;23:308-313.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17505273?tool=bestpractice.com 通常,故意烫伤具有下述特征:
分布:典型分布在下肢,伴有或不伴有臀部或会阴烫伤。[128]Daria S, Sugar NF, Feldman KW, et al. Into hot water head first: distribution of intentional and unintentional immersion burns. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2004;20:302-310.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15123901?tool=bestpractice.com[137]Maguire S, Moynihan S, Mann M, et al. A systematic review of the features that indicate intentional scalds in children. Burns. 2008;34:1072-1081.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18538478?tool=bestpractice.com 有时膝后皱褶处或臀部没有烫伤,因为儿童会紧紧蜷伏双腿以保护自己或将身体底部紧贴在浴盆相对冷一点的表面(“甜甜圈”征)。[135]Phillips PS, Pickrell E, Morse TS. Intentional burning: a severe form of child abuse. J Am Coll Emerg Phys. 1974;3:388-390.[138]Purdue GF, Hunt JL, Prescott PR. Child abuse by burning - an index of suspicion. J Trauma. 1988;28:221-224.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3346922?tool=bestpractice.com[139]Stratman E, Melski J. Scald abuse. Arch Dermatol. 2002;138:318-320.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11902981?tool=bestpractice.com
模式:深度通常一致,部分或全层烧伤且边界清晰。 肢体对称性受累并不罕见。[127]Yeoh C, Nixon JW, Dickson W, et al. Patterns of scald injuries. Arch Dis Child. 1994;71:156-158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1029951/pdf/archdisch00568-0056.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7944540?tool=bestpractice.com[134]Zaloga WF, Collins KA. Pediatric homicides related to burn injury: a retrospective review at the Medical University of South Carolina. J Forensic Sci. 2006;51:396-399.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16566778?tool=bestpractice.com[137]Maguire S, Moynihan S, Mann M, et al. A systematic review of the features that indicate intentional scalds in children. Burns. 2008;34:1072-1081.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18538478?tool=bestpractice.com
程度:浸没式烧伤通常范围广,累及较大的总体表面积,尽管这一点并非突出特征。[128]Daria S, Sugar NF, Feldman KW, et al. Into hot water head first: distribution of intentional and unintentional immersion burns. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2004;20:302-310.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15123901?tool=bestpractice.com[131]Sheridan RL. Recognition and management of hot liquid aspiration in children. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;27:89-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8572457?tool=bestpractice.com[132]Titus MO, Baxter AL, Starling SP. Accidental scald burns in sinks. Pediatrics. 2003;111:e191-e194.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/111/2/e191.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12563095?tool=bestpractice.com[137]Maguire S, Moynihan S, Mann M, et al. A systematic review of the features that indicate intentional scalds in children. Burns. 2008;34:1072-1081.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18538478?tool=bestpractice.com
接触和腐蚀剂烧伤
故意接触烧伤是虐待中所报告的最常见非烫伤性烧伤。 它们最常见于背部、肩部及臀部;通常界线分明;部分病例可与烧伤物完全匹配(例如,吹风机或香烟打火机)。[124]Dressler DP, Hozid JL. Thermal injury and child abuse: the medical evidence dilemma. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2001;22:180-185.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11302607?tool=bestpractice.com[140]Darok M, Reischle S. Burn injuries caused by a hair-dryer: an unusual case of child abuse. Forensic Sci Int. 2001;115:143-146.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11056285?tool=bestpractice.com[141]Gillespie RW. The battered child syndrome: thermal and caustic manifestations. J Trauma. 1965;5:523-534.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14308389?tool=bestpractice.com[142]Grellner W, Metzner G. Child abuse caused by thermal violence - determination and reconstruction. Arch Kriminol. 1995;195:38-46.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7710314?tool=bestpractice.com 手部意外接触烧伤在学步儿童中最常见,通常因抓卷发钳等物体或接触热风炉所致。
而香烟烧伤是儿童中频繁报告的接触烧伤,人为烧伤与意外烧伤的真实特征尚没有很好的描述。 人为香烟烧伤为圆形全层烧伤,直径约为 0.8 cm 到 1 cm,位于儿童不太可能受到意外烧伤的区域,但是缺乏已发表的证据来鉴别意外和故意香烟烧伤。[143]Johnson CF. Symbolic scarring and tattooing: unusual manifestations of child abuse. Clin Pediatr. 1994;33:46-49.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8156727?tool=bestpractice.com 意外香烟烧伤是浅表性的,可能不会留下图案或锥形印记,一般出现在皮肤暴露区。
受虐儿童也可能受到腐蚀剂烧伤(置于口中、眼中或皮肤上的酸性或碱性物质)。[144]Kini N, Lazoritz S, Ott C, et al. Caustic instillation into the ear as a form of child abuse. Am J Emerg Med. 1997;15:442-443.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2235221?tool=bestpractice.com[145]Telmon N, Allery JP, Dorandeu A, et al. Concentrated bleach burns in a child. J Forensic Sci. 2002;47:1060-1061.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12353546?tool=bestpractice.com 最初,腐蚀剂烧伤可能不会造成任何疼痛(与立即会感到强烈痛楚的烫伤形成鲜明对比)。意外腐蚀剂烧伤可能因电池或盐结晶泄漏所致。[146]Zurbuchen P, LeCoultre C, Calza AM, et al. Cutaneous necrosis after contact with calcium chloride: a mistaken diagnosis of child abuse. Pediatrics. 1996;97:257-258.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8584389?tool=bestpractice.com[147]Winek CL, Wahba WW, Huston RM. Chemical burn from alkaline batteries - a case report. Forensic Sci Int. 1999;100:101-104.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10356777?tool=bestpractice.com 必须进行详细病史询问,然后检查儿童衣物是否有化学试剂。
性虐待
请参阅性虐待详细内容。
检查
2 岁以下儿童具有遭受严重形式虐待的高风险。 他们可能具有隐性损伤且无法提供自己的事件史。 因此,对这一年龄组需进行更全面的检查。
所有患者首次检查
骨骼检查: [148]The Royal College of Radiologists, The Society and College of Radiographers. The radiological investigation of suspected physical abuse in children. September 2017 [internet publication].https://www.rcr.ac.uk/publication/radiological-investigation-suspected-physical-abuse-children[149]American College of Radiology. ACR-SPR practice parameter for the performance and interpretation of skeletal surveys in children. 2016. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 11 November 2016).http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PGTS/guidelines/Skeletal_Surveys.pdf[150]Flaherty EG, Perez-Rossello JM, Levine MA, et al; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Evaluating children with fractures for child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2014;133:e477-e489.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/133/2/e477.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24470642?tool=bestpractice.com 如怀疑 2 岁以下儿童遭受身体虐待,则应进行 22 平片骨骼检查(包括肋骨斜视图)。具有腹部损伤的儿童如果临床上较稳定,则应进行全面的骨骼检查。甚至当首次骨骼检查呈阴性或模棱两可时,在首次检查后 11 到 14 天时重复骨骼检查会就模棱两可的发现给出进一步信息、确定进一步骨折及添加骨折时间相关信息。[151]Kemp AM, Butler A, Morris S, et al. Which radiological investigations should be performed to identify fractures in suspected child abuse? Clin Radiol. 2006;61:723-736.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16905379?tool=bestpractice.com 在一些国家,放射性核素扫描是一种替代方法。 但是,在美国很少对儿童使用放射性核素扫描。
全血细胞计数 (FBC) 以及血小板计数和凝血功能,特别是如果儿童有青肿或有出血证据时。
使用尿液分析以筛查潜血。
肝功能检验 (LFT) 和血清淀粉酶,用于筛查隐性腹部损伤。[152]Lane WG, Dubowitz H, Langenberg P. Screening for occult abdominal trauma in children with suspected physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2009;124:1595-1602.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19933726?tool=bestpractice.com[153]Bevan CA, Palmer CS, Sutcliffe JR, et al. Blunt abdominal trauma in children: how predictive is ALT for liver injury? Emerg Med J. 2009;26:283-288.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19307392?tool=bestpractice.com
如果发现儿童出现骨折,应进行骨代谢检查,包括血清钙、血清磷、碱性磷酸酶、甲状旁腺激素和 25-羟基维生素 D。[154]Servaes S, Brown SD, Choudhary AK, et al. The etiology and significance of fractures in infants and young children: a critical multidisciplinary review. Pediatr Radiol. 2016;46:591-600.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26886911?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,骨折愈合时碱性磷酸酶可能会提高,并不一定是发生了骨病。[150]Flaherty EG, Perez-Rossello JM, Levine MA, et al; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Evaluating children with fractures for child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2014;133:e477-e489.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/133/2/e477.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24470642?tool=bestpractice.com
拍摄记录任何可能损伤的照片:对挫伤、烧伤、咬伤及其他任何皮肤损伤拍摄适宜的照片至关重要。如果疑似咬伤,依据照片可能可以重构齿形。虽然在法医牙科学中依据咬痕确定“咬人者”的准确性不定,但可从咬伤图片的审查中获得有用信息。如果损伤位于弯曲表面,则应使用直角测量装置来拍摄照片,且至少拍摄两个平面。[155]Fisher-Owens SA, Lukefahr JL, Tate AR, et al. Oral and dental aspects of child abuse and neglect. Pediatr Dent. 2017 Jul 15;39(4):278-283.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29122066?tool=bestpractice.com
疑似头部和/或脊柱损伤(除初步检查外的检查)
脑部 CT:可确定颅内出血、骨骼和软组织损伤及伴有或不伴有脑水肿情况下的实质损伤。[156]Kemp AM, Rajaram S, Mann M, et al; Welsh Child Protection Systematic Review Group. What neuroimaging should be performed in children in whom inflicted brain injury (iBI) is suspected? A systematic review. Clin Radiol. 2009;64:473-483.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19348842?tool=bestpractice.com 以下情况应强烈考虑这种检查:所有疑似身体虐待的 1 岁以下儿童;伴有神经系统症状和/或体征的儿童;及有头部损伤的所有儿童。 如果发现虐待性腹部损伤,也应考虑头部 CT。 研究表明,非造影头部 CT 有助于确定儿童是否具有隐性头部损伤,是对疑似 AHT 的标准护理的一线评估。[156]Kemp AM, Rajaram S, Mann M, et al; Welsh Child Protection Systematic Review Group. What neuroimaging should be performed in children in whom inflicted brain injury (iBI) is suspected? A systematic review. Clin Radiol. 2009;64:473-483.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19348842?tool=bestpractice.com[157]Rubin DM, Christian CW, Bilaniuk LT, et al. Occult head injury in high-risk abused children. Pediatrics. 2003;111:1382-1386.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12777556?tool=bestpractice.com[158]American College of Radiology. ACR Appropriateness Criteria: head trauma - child. 2014. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 11 November 2016).https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/3083021/Narrative/ 研究发现,与虐待性头部创伤显著有关的体征包括:脑实质凸面上多发性或双侧硬膜下出血;大脑两半球间出血;缺血缺氧性损伤及脑水肿。[64]Hymel KP, Armijo-Garcia V, Foster R, et al; Pediatric Brain Injury Research Network (PediBIRN) Investigators. Validation of a clinical prediction rule for pediatric abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1537-e1544.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/134/6/e1537.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25404722?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Cowley LE, Morris CB, Maguire SA, et al. Validation of a prediction tool for abusive head trauma. Pediatrics. 2015;136:290-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26216332?tool=bestpractice.com[159]Kemp AM, Jaspan T, Griffiths J, et al. Neuroimaging: what neuroradiological features distinguish abusive from non-abusive head trauma? A systematic review. Arch Dis Child. 2011;96:1103-1112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21965812?tool=bestpractice.com 如发现异常,则应在 3 到 5 天内进行脑部 MRI。
扩张眼底镜检查:眼科医师必须在瞳孔扩大和使用 RetCam(广角数码儿科视网膜影像)的情况下,使用间接眼底镜进行详细的眼底检查。 这些技术能显现视网膜周围,AHT 中的视网膜出血最常在这个部位见到。
脑部 MRI(± 脊柱 MRI):脑部 CT 如发现异常,则应在 3 到 5 天内进行此检查。 扫描应包括弥散加权影像 (DWI)、T1 和 T2 加权序列及液体衰减反转恢复序列 (FLAIR)。 这样可以充分描述损伤程度。 DWI 序列也可能有助于判断预后。 如果怀疑患儿具有脊柱损伤,则应延伸 MRI 以包括脊柱。[156]Kemp AM, Rajaram S, Mann M, et al; Welsh Child Protection Systematic Review Group. What neuroimaging should be performed in children in whom inflicted brain injury (iBI) is suspected? A systematic review. Clin Radiol. 2009;64:473-483.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19348842?tool=bestpractice.com
疑似骨骼损伤(除初步检查外的检查)
放射性核素骨扫描:在部分国家,疑似骨折的儿童如果首次骨骼检查呈阴性或模棱两可,可能会用这种检查方法重复骨骼检查。 但是,在美国很少对儿童使用放射性核素扫描。 骨折发生后 4 小时内骨扫描呈阳性,但数月后仍然呈阳性,因此不利于确定骨折日期。 对检测颅骨骨折毫无用处且对确定干骺端病变不太敏感。 还应获取平片,这些检测可确认所发现的热点是否为骨折。 但是,骨扫描对识别肋骨骨折有高敏感性,在疑似急性肋骨骨折时可以考虑进行,因为在骨折愈合前,可能会难以通过平片检测到急性肋骨骨折。[150]Flaherty EG, Perez-Rossello JM, Levine MA, et al; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect. Evaluating children with fractures for child physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2014;133:e477-e489.http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/133/2/e477.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24470642?tool=bestpractice.com
口腔损伤(除初步检查外的检查)
腹盆腔损伤(除初步检查外的检查)
LFT 和血清淀粉酶检测(如果初步检查未进行此检测)。[152]Lane WG, Dubowitz H, Langenberg P. Screening for occult abdominal trauma in children with suspected physical abuse. Pediatrics. 2009;124:1595-1602.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19933726?tool=bestpractice.com[153]Bevan CA, Palmer CS, Sutcliffe JR, et al. Blunt abdominal trauma in children: how predictive is ALT for liver injury? Emerg Med J. 2009;26:283-288.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19307392?tool=bestpractice.com
腹部超声:在筛查创伤性腹部损伤方面的作用有限。
腹部/盆腔 CT:为决定性检测;可描绘任何中空器官破裂并检测出包膜下出血、肝脏或脾脏破裂以及肾损伤。
咬伤(除初步检查外的检查)
重要的是,具有疑似成人咬伤的儿童应及时被转至美国法医牙科学委员会或英国法医牙医师协会,进行进一步评估。[120]American Board of Forensic Odontology. ID & bitemark guidelines. 2008. http://www.abfo.org/ (last accessed 11 November 2016).http://www.abfo.org/resources/id-bitemark-guidelines/ 法医牙科医师会进行 CT 扫描、牙齿重建、DNA 提取或 UV 数码影像,以便可能确定犯罪者。[160]Fischman SL. Bite marks. Alpha Omegan. 2002;95:42-46.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12561715?tool=bestpractice.com
应获取司法拭子用于 DNA 检测,因为它们有助于确定犯罪者。
青肿(除初步检查外的检查)
中毒(除初步检查外的检查)