血液高凝状态可以是遗传性的或者获得性的,但某些病例的发病原因还未确定。患者可能具有多个共存的遗传性和获得性危险因素;正是这些因素间的复杂相互作用决定了静脉血栓栓塞 (VTE) 的整体风险。遗传性原因包括凝血级联反应抑制剂水平降低(组 1)导致的易栓症,以及凝血因子水平或功能上调(组 2)导致的易栓症[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com组 1 遗传性易栓症包括抗凝血酶、蛋白 C、蛋白 S、血浆纤维蛋白溶酶原缺失和异常纤维蛋白溶解异常。许多这些异常的患者,到 60 岁时将会患静脉血栓。[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com组 2 遗传性易栓症包括凝血酶原和凝血因子 V (因子 V Leiden) 基因突变和镰状细胞病。相对于组 1 异常,这些异常通常与低风险的血栓形成相关,他们在 60 岁时一般不会患血栓。在易栓症疑似患者中,第 2 组疾病的发生频率至少为第 1 组的 5 倍。[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com
抗凝血酶 (AT) 缺乏:AT 是主要的凝血抑制剂,对于获得良好的肝素治疗效果至关重要。AT 抑制凝血蛋白酶,包括 IIa、Xa、IXa 和 XIa。AT 缺乏可使发生血栓性疾病的风险增大。白人的发病率为 1/5000[16]Tait RC, Walker ID, Perry DJ, et al. Prevalence of antithrombin deficiency in the healthy population. Br J Haematol. 1994;87:106-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7947234?tool=bestpractice.com基因突变引起 AT 量的减少或质的缺陷。这些情况出现在罹患静脉血栓栓塞 (VTE) 的多达 3% 的白人和 6% 的南亚人中。[11]Franco RF, Reitsma PH. Genetic risk factors of venous thrombosis. Hum Genet. 2001;109:369-384.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11702218?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Sakata T, Okamoto A, Mannami T, et al. Protein C and antithrombin deficiency are important risk factors for deep vein thrombosis in Japanese. J Thromb Haemost. 2004;2:528-530.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15009480?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Miyata T, Kimura R, KoburaY, et al. Genetic risk factors for deep vein thrombosis among Japanese: importance of protein S K196E mutation. Int J Hematol. 2006;83:217-223.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16720551?tool=bestpractice.com严重的 AT 缺乏可能使静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加 50 倍。[18]Rosendaal FR. Risk factors for venous thrombotic disease. Thromb Haemost. 1999;82:610-619.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10605758?tool=bestpractice.comAT 缺乏的纯合性会导致胎死宫内。
蛋白 C 缺乏:蛋白 C 是抗凝调节机制的一部分。在血栓调节蛋白的作用下,它被凝血酶转化为活化蛋白 C (APC)。APC 使活化的凝血因子 V 和 VIII 失活,这个反应需要它的辅助因子蛋白 S 参与。[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com患者的血浆不能产生适当的抗凝剂应答 APC 的情况被称为 APC 抵抗。它可由凝血因子 V(称为因子V Leiden)的 R506Q 基因突变引起,它对 APC 引起的裂解产生抵抗。获得性 APC 抵抗性可见于妊娠期、使用口服避孕药、接受激素替代治疗和 FVIII 水平升高的情况。蛋白 C 缺乏已被证明是血栓形成的危险因素。蛋白 C 缺乏在白人的发病率是 1/500,低于东南亚人群发病率。[12]Sakata T, Okamoto A, Mannami T, et al. Protein C and antithrombin deficiency are important risk factors for deep vein thrombosis in Japanese. J Thromb Haemost. 2004;2:528-530.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15009480?tool=bestpractice.com[19]Tait RC, Walker ID, Reitsma PH, et al. Prevalence of protein C deficiency in the healthy population. Thromb Haemost. 1995;73:87-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7740502?tool=bestpractice.com这种情况发生在罹患静脉血栓栓塞的 5% 的白人和 8% 的东南亚人。[11]Franco RF, Reitsma PH. Genetic risk factors of venous thrombosis. Hum Genet. 2001;109:369-384.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11702218?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Miyata T, Kimura R, KoburaY, et al. Genetic risk factors for deep vein thrombosis among Japanese: importance of protein S K196E mutation. Int J Hematol. 2006;83:217-223.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16720551?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Suehisa E, Nomara T, Kawasaki T, et al. Frequency of natural coagulation inhibitor (antithrombin III, protein C and protein S) deficiencies in Japanese patients with spontaneous deep vein thrombosis. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2001;12:95-99.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11302483?tool=bestpractice.com纯合子缺失可以导致严重的新生儿暴发性紫癜表型。[21]Seligsohn U, Berger A, Abend M, et al. Homozygous protein C deficiency manifested by massive venous thrombosis in the newborn. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:559-562.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6546411?tool=bestpractice.com
蛋白 S 缺陷在白色人种的患病率是 1/1000,低于东南亚人群患病率。[11]Franco RF, Reitsma PH. Genetic risk factors of venous thrombosis. Hum Genet. 2001;109:369-384.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11702218?tool=bestpractice.com[13]Sakata T, Okamoto A, Mannami T, et al. Prevalence of protein S deficiency in the Japanese general population: the Suita study. J Thromb Haemost. 2004;2:1012-1013.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15140145?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Suehisa E, Nomara T, Kawasaki T, et al. Frequency of natural coagulation inhibitor (antithrombin III, protein C and protein S) deficiencies in Japanese patients with spontaneous deep vein thrombosis. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2001;12:95-99.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11302483?tool=bestpractice.com蛋白 S 是活化蛋白 C 发挥抗凝作用的一个维生素 K 依赖型协同因子。它具有两种形式:游离蛋白 S (40%) 和与 C4b 结合蛋白连结的蛋白 S (60%)。只有游离形式具有辅助因子活性。蛋白 S 缺陷与罹患静脉血栓栓塞的高风险有关,尤其是年轻人。
血浆纤溶酶原缺乏症:大量研究显示在静脉血栓形成患者中,血浆纤溶酶原缺乏的频率高于预期。[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com
异常纤维蛋白原血症:一种与出血有关的罕见遗传性疾病,但 21% 的患者并发血栓。[22]Acharya SS, Dimichele DM. Rare inherited disorders of fibrinogen. Haemophilia. 2008;14:1151-1158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141154?tool=bestpractice.com
凝血因子 V Leiden:凝血因子 V 的基因突变,可导致高凝固性。白种人患病率为 6%,但是在其他种族人群中却很罕见。[6]Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Lindpaintner K, et al. Mutation in the gene coding for coagulation factor V and the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke and venous thrombosis in apparently healthy men. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:912-917.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7877648?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Rees DC, Cox M, Clegg JB. World distribution of factor V Leiden. Lancet. 1995;346:1133-1134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7475606?tool=bestpractice.com静脉血栓栓塞 (VTE) 在最多 20% 的白人中出现。[23]Rosendaal FR, Koster T, Vandenbroucke JP, et al. High risk of thrombosis in patients homozygous for factor V Leiden (activated protein C resistance). Blood. 1995;85:1504-1508.http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/bloodjournal/85/6/1504.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7888671?tool=bestpractice.com约 90% 的 APC 抵抗性患者体内存在凝血因子 V Leiden。[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险在杂合子中增加 7 倍,纯合子中增加 80 倍。[8]Rees DC, Cox M, Clegg JB. World distribution of factor V Leiden. Lancet. 1995;346:1133-1134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7475606?tool=bestpractice.com超过 75% 的携带者永远不会发生静脉血栓栓塞。[24]Lensen R, Rosendaal F, Vandenbroucke J, et al. Factor V Leiden: the venous thrombotic risk in thrombophilic families. Br J Haematol. 2000;110:939-945.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11054086?tool=bestpractice.com但是,那些具有静脉血栓栓塞家族史的携带者,大约 50% 将会在 65 岁之前发生静脉血栓栓塞。[24]Lensen R, Rosendaal F, Vandenbroucke J, et al. Factor V Leiden: the venous thrombotic risk in thrombophilic families. Br J Haematol. 2000;110:939-945.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11054086?tool=bestpractice.com
凝血酶原(因子 II)基因突变 (G-20210-A):携带这种突变的人凝血酶原的水平高于正常,认为是其作用导致血栓形成的风险增加。白种人患病率高达 2%,但是在其他种族人群中却很罕见。[7]Poort SR, Rosendaal FR, Reitsma PH, et al. A common genetic variation in the 3'-untranslated region of the prothrombin gene is associated with elevated plasma prothrombin levels and an increase in venous thrombosis. Blood. 1996;88:3698-3703.http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/bloodjournal/88/10/3698.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8916933?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Rees DC, Chapman NH, Webster MT, et al. Born to clot: the European burden. Br J Haematol. 1999;105:564-566.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10233439?tool=bestpractice.com实际上在有静脉血栓栓塞的患者中发生率为 6%,有静脉血栓栓塞阳性家族史的发生率为 18%。[7]Poort SR, Rosendaal FR, Reitsma PH, et al. A common genetic variation in the 3'-untranslated region of the prothrombin gene is associated with elevated plasma prothrombin levels and an increase in venous thrombosis. Blood. 1996;88:3698-3703.http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/bloodjournal/88/10/3698.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8916933?tool=bestpractice.com罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险在杂合子中增加了两至三倍。与凝血因子 V Leiden 的复合杂合子使静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加 20 倍。[26]Emmerich J, Rosendaal FR, Cattaneo M, et al; Study Group for Pooled-Analysis in Venous Thromboembolism. Combined effect of factor V Leiden and prothrombin 20210A on the risk of venous thromboembolism - pooled analysis of 8 case-control studies including 2310 cases and 3204 controls. Thromb Haemost. 2001;86:809-816. [Erratum in: Thromb Haemost. 2001;86:1598.]http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11583312?tool=bestpractice.com
镰状细胞病:在高凝状态中的作用是有争议的。这种疾病会导致凝血酶生成的标记物水平增加、纤溶系统的异常激活、组织因子表达增加、血小板活化增强。[27]Ataga KI, Key NS. Hypercoagulability in sickle cell disease: a new approach to an old problem. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2007:91-96.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2007/1/91http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024615?tool=bestpractice.com研究表明镰状细胞病与肺栓塞发生率增加有关,但是深静脉血栓形成的发生率与年龄配对的对照组相当。[28]Stein PD, Beemath A, Meyers FA, et al. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in hospitalized patients with sickle cell disease. Am J Med. 2006;119:897.e7-e11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17000225?tool=bestpractice.com
已经认识到的可改变的高凝状态危险因素包括肥胖和吸烟。静脉血栓栓塞风险增加与妊娠、肿瘤、炎症性肠病、系统性红斑狼疮、骨髓增生异常、肾病综合征、Behcet 病、HIV感染、弥散性血管内凝血和阵发性睡眠性血红蛋白尿症有关。复方口服避孕药或选择性雌激素受体调节剂 (SERM)、激素替代治疗 (HRT) 和化疗,都有助于形成高凝状态。 [
]How do different combined oral contraceptives compare in terms of the risk of venous thrombosis?http://cochraneclinicalanswers.com/doi/10.1002/cca.933/full显示答案 其他原因包括手术、年龄、远程航班(>4小时)。
肥胖:发病机制是多因素的,包括凝血因子增加和纤维蛋白溶解受损。肥胖者的组织因子、凝血因子 VII 和 VIII、纤溶酶原激活物抑制剂 -1 均增高,可能导致易栓状态。[38]Ciglioni M, Targer G, Bergamo Andreis IA, et al. Visceral fat accumulation and its relation to plasma hemostatic factors in healthy men. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1996;16:368-374.http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/16/3/368.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8630661?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Luskukoff DJ, Samad F. The adipocyte and hemostatic balance in obesity: studies of PAI-1. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18:1-6.http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/18/1/1.full.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9445248?tool=bestpractice.com脂肪细胞因子也可能参与其中。[40]Després J-P, Lemieux I, Bergeron J, et al. Abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome: contribution to global cardiometabolic risk. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:1039-1049. [Erratum in: Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2008;28:e151.)http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/28/6/1039.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18356555?tool=bestpractice.com肥胖与静脉血栓栓塞的初发和复发风险增加都有关,并且罹患风险随着 BMI(体质指数)的增加而增加。[27]Ataga KI, Key NS. Hypercoagulability in sickle cell disease: a new approach to an old problem. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2007:91-96.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2007/1/91http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024615?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Stein PD, Beemath A, Olson RE. Obesity as a risk factor for venous thromboembolism. Am J Med. 2005;118:978-980.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16164883?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Eichinger S, Hron G, Bialonczyk C, et al. Overweight, obesity, and the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1678-1683.http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=770355http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18695082?tool=bestpractice.com
吸烟:静脉血栓栓塞一个微弱的危险因素,停止吸烟时风险有所降低。[43]Pomp ER, Rosendaal FR, Doggen CJ. Smoking increases the risk of venous thrombosis and acts synergistically with oral contraceptive use. Am J Hematol. 2008;83:97-102.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17726684?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Severinsen MT, Kristensen SR, Johnsen SP, et al. Smoking and venous thromboembolism: a Danish follow-up study. J Thromb Haemost. 2009;7:1297-1303.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19566546?tool=bestpractice.com与非吸烟者相比,吸烟者凝血因子活化、纤维蛋白原及因子 VII、IX 和 X 的水平都增加,这都可能导致高凝固性。[45]Miller GJ, Bauer KA, Cooper JA, et al. Activation of the coagulation pathway in cigarette smokers. Thromb Haemost. 1998;79:549-553.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9531038?tool=bestpractice.com
妊娠/产后:与非妊娠的女性相比,静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加 4 倍。[46]Heit JA, Kobbervig CE, James AH, et al. Trends in the incidence of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy or post-partum: a 30 year population-based study. Ann Intern Med. 2005;143:697-706.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16287790?tool=bestpractice.com怀孕导致蛋白 S 生理性下降,纤维蛋白原、凝血因子 VIII 和血管性血友病因子增加。导致活化蛋白 C 抵抗。这些变化至少持续到产后 2 个月。[47]Blomback M, Konkle BA, Manco-Johnson MJ, et al. Preanalytical conditions that affect coagulation testing, including hormonal status and therapy. J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5:855-858.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17229046?tool=bestpractice.com静脉血栓栓塞是产妇死亡的一个主要原因。[48]Berg CJ, Callaghan WM, Syverson C, et al. Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 1998 to 2005. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;116:1302-1309.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21099595?tool=bestpractice.com
恶性肿瘤:对于 16%-18% 的易栓症患者恶性肿瘤为其危险因素。[49]Heit JA, O'Fallon WM, Petterson TM, et al. Relative impact of risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:1245-1248.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12038942?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Trujillo-Santos J, Prandoni P, Rivron-Guillot K, et al. Clinical outcome in patients with venous thromboembolism and hidden cancer: findings from the RIETE Registry. J Thromb Haemost. 2008;6:251-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18021305?tool=bestpractice.com组织因子表达、纤溶活性、恶性细胞释放的细胞因子及其与内皮细胞和血小板的相互作用,激活了凝血系统,从而形成易栓状态。[51]Rodrigues CA, Ferrarotto R, Kalil Filho R, et al. Venous thromboembolism and cancer: a systematic review. J Thromb Thrombolysis. 2010;30:67-78.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20140479?tool=bestpractice.com隐匿性恶性肿瘤在自发性(特发性)静脉血栓栓塞诊断时的患病率是 6.1%,诊断 12 个月后是 10%-12%。[52]Carrier M, Le Gal G, Wells PS, et al. Systematic review: the Trousseau syndrome revisited: should we screen extensively for cancer in patients with venous thromboembolism? Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:323-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18765702?tool=bestpractice.com隐匿性恶性肿瘤在继发性静脉血栓栓塞的病例中较少(诊断时为 1.6%,诊断后 12 个月为 2.4%)。[52]Carrier M, Le Gal G, Wells PS, et al. Systematic review: the Trousseau syndrome revisited: should we screen extensively for cancer in patients with venous thromboembolism? Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:323-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18765702?tool=bestpractice.com往往随后被诊断为癌症晚期伴有转移。[53]White RH, Chew HK, Zhou H, et al. Incidence of venous thromboembolism in the year before the diagnosis of cancer in 528,693 adults. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:1782-1787.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16087828?tool=bestpractice.com隐匿性恶性肿瘤和静脉血栓栓塞同高早期复发、出血和死亡相关。[50]Trujillo-Santos J, Prandoni P, Rivron-Guillot K, et al. Clinical outcome in patients with venous thromboembolism and hidden cancer: findings from the RIETE Registry. J Thromb Haemost. 2008;6:251-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18021305?tool=bestpractice.com
急性炎症状态:因急性感染、关节炎、结缔组织病、炎症性肠病住院的患者,罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加。[54]Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy. Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2_suppl):e691S-e736S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315276?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Cohen AT, Alikhan R, Arcelus JI, et al. Assessment of venous thromboembolism risk and the benefits of thromboprophylaxis in medical patients. Thromb Haemost. 2005;94:750-759.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16270626?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Zakai NA, Wright J, Cushman M. Risk factors for venous thrombosis in medical inpatients: validation of a thrombosis risk score. J Thromb Haemost. 2004;2:2156-2161.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15613021?tool=bestpractice.com急症入院的疾病 VTE 的发生率大约是 9%-40%。社区的传染病患者罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加两倍。[57]Samama MM. An epidemiologic study of risk factors for deep vein thrombosis in medical outpatients: the Sirius study. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:3415-3420.http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=747672http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11112234?tool=bestpractice.com炎症性肠病罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加三倍。[58]Bernstein CN, Blanchard JF, Houston DS, et al. The incidence of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism among patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a population-based cohort study. Thromb Haemost. 2001;85:430-434.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11307809?tool=bestpractice.com基本机制尚未阐明。
抗磷脂抗体 (aPLs):与自身免疫性疾病有关(如系统性红斑狼疮或恶性肿瘤)。[59]Farmer-Boatwright MK, Roubey RA. Venous thrombosis in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29:321-325.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19228605?tool=bestpractice.com那些发展为静脉血栓栓塞的有抗磷脂抗体的患者,大多数有其他的血栓形成危险因素。[59]Farmer-Boatwright MK, Roubey RA. Venous thrombosis in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2009;29:321-325.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19228605?tool=bestpractice.com多达 20% 的静脉血栓栓塞患者在发病之前就有高水平的抗心磷脂抗体。[60]Ginsburg KS, Liang MH, Newcomer L, et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies and the risk for ischemic stroke and venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:997-1002.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1443986?tool=bestpractice.com抗磷脂综合征的特点是持续性测得抗磷脂抗体(至少检测两次,间隔 12 周),以及客观证实的血栓事件或其发病同妊娠相关。[61]Miyakis S, Lockshin MD, Atsumi T, et al. International consensus statement on an update of the classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4:295-306.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2006.01753.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16420554?tool=bestpractice.com确诊的抗磷脂综合征与抗凝治疗终止后的静脉血栓栓塞高复发风险有关。
骨髓增生异常:包括真性红细胞增多症、原发性血小板增多症、原发或特发性骨髓纤维化和慢性粒细胞白血病。12%-39% 的病例有血栓形成。[62]Elliott MA, Tefferi A. Thrombosis and haemorrhage in polycythaemia vera and essential thrombocythaemia. Br J Haematol. 2005;128:275-290.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15667529?tool=bestpractice.com观察到腹部静脉血栓形成发生率高。[63]Hexner EO. JAK2 V617F: implications for thrombosis in myeloproliferative diseases. Curr Opin Hematol. 2007;14:450-454.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934351?tool=bestpractice.comJAK2 V617F 基因突变在真性红细胞增多症患者中发生率大于95%,在原发性血小板增多症和骨髓纤维化患者中高达50%。[64]Campbell PJ, Green AR. The myeloproliferative disorders. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2452-2466.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17151367?tool=bestpractice.comJAK2V617F 基因突变可能是易栓表型的病因。[63]Hexner EO. JAK2 V617F: implications for thrombosis in myeloproliferative diseases. Curr Opin Hematol. 2007;14:450-454.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934351?tool=bestpractice.com
肾病综合征:诊断后的前 6 个月内高凝状态的发生率升高。[65]Mahmoodi BK, ten Kate MK, Waanders F, et al. High absolute risks and predictors of venous and arterial thromboembolic events in patients with nephrotic syndrome: results from a large retrospective cohort study. Circulation. 2008;117:224-230.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/117/2/224.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18158362?tool=bestpractice.com肾静脉血栓形成患病率高。[66]Singhal R, Brimble KS, Thromboembolic complications in the nephrotic syndrome: pathophysiology and clinical management. Thromb Res. 2006;118:397-407.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15990160?tool=bestpractice.com发病机制尚不清楚。但可能是凝血和纤溶蛋白水平改变、血小板活化、高粘稠度、高脂血症、低血清白蛋白、糖皮质激素或利尿剂治疗的综合结果。[66]Singhal R, Brimble KS, Thromboembolic complications in the nephrotic syndrome: pathophysiology and clinical management. Thromb Res. 2006;118:397-407.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15990160?tool=bestpractice.com
Behcet 病:一种罕见的多系统异常疾病,以口腔和生殖器溃疡反复发作和眼部受累为特点。静脉血栓栓塞是常见的并发症,累及 6%到 39% 的患者。[67]Houman MH, Ben Gourbel I, Ben Salah IK, et al. Deep vein thrombosis in Behcet's disease. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2001;19(suppl 24):S48-S50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11760399?tool=bestpractice.com[68]Espinosa G, Font J, Tassies D, et al. Vascular involvement in Behcet's disease: relation with thrombophilic factors, coagulation activation, and thrombomodulin. Am J Med. 2002;112:37-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11812405?tool=bestpractice.com发病机制了解甚少。在所有患者中发现凝血酶生成和纤维蛋白溶解的标记物增加。[68]Espinosa G, Font J, Tassies D, et al. Vascular involvement in Behcet's disease: relation with thrombophilic factors, coagulation activation, and thrombomodulin. Am J Med. 2002;112:37-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11812405?tool=bestpractice.com
HIV 感染:在年龄和性别配对组,HIV 感染的患者静脉血栓栓塞发生率高。[69]Fultz SL, McGinnis KA, Skanderson M, et al. Association of venous thromboembolism with human immunodeficiency virus and mortality in veterans. Am J Med. 2004;116:420-423.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15006592?tool=bestpractice.com导致易栓状态的机制不确定。
弥散性血管内凝血:潜在病因如败血症\恶性肿瘤\创伤或肝脏疾病的并发症。发病机制很复杂,会导致凝血酶生成因组织因子表达增加而增加,生理凝血功能受损,纤维蛋白溶解加速。[70]Levi M, Toh CH, Thachil J, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of disseminated intravascular coagulation. British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Br J Haematol. 2009;145:24-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19222477?tool=bestpractice.com可以并发出血和血栓形成。
阵发性睡眠性血红蛋白尿症:该病的重度患者 50% 发生高凝状态,并导致三分之一患者死亡。[71]Hillmen P, Lewis SM, Bessler M, et al. Natural history of paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria. New Engl J Med. 1995;333:1253-1259.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199511093331904#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7566002?tool=bestpractice.com发病机制不清楚,但被认为与溶血和可能的补体直接激活血小板有关。[72]Hill A, Richards SJ, Hillmen P. Recent developments in the understanding and management of paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria. Br J Haematol. 2007;137:181-192.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17408457?tool=bestpractice.com
肝素导致的血小板减少症:因为肝素和血小板因子 4 (PF4) 结合形成复合物诱发抗体形成所致。抗体与肝素/血小板因子 4 复合物结合导致血小板活化,微粒形成,血小板消耗,血小板减少,随后凝血酶生成增加。[73]Warkentin T, Hayward CP, Boshkov LK, et al. Sera from patients with heparin-induced thrombocytopenia generate platelet-derived microparticles with procoagulant activity: an explanation for the thrombotic complications of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Blood. 1994;84:3691-3699.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7949124?tool=bestpractice.com开始肝素治疗后,任何患者都应警惕有发生血小板减少症或新的血栓形成的可能。[74]Linkins LA, Dans AL, Moores LK, et al. Treatment and prevention of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e495S-e530S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleID=1159542http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574270?tool=bestpractice.com低剂量肝素治疗发生的风险最低(<0.1%),术后接受普通肝素治疗风险增加 5%。[74]Linkins LA, Dans AL, Moores LK, et al. Treatment and prevention of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e495S-e530S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleID=1159542http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574270?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Jang, IK, Hursting MJ. When heparins promote thrombosis: review of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Circulation. 2005;111:2671-2683.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/111/20/2671.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15911718?tool=bestpractice.com
含有雌激素的口服避孕药/激素替代治疗/选择性雌激素受体调节剂治疗:静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加。[76]Rosendaal FR, van Hylckama Vlieg A, Tanis BC, et al. Estrogens, progestogens and thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2003;1:1371-1380.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12871270?tool=bestpractice.com[77]Cosman F, Lindsay R. Selective estrogen receptor modulators: clinical spectrum. Endocr Rev. 1999;20:418-434.http://press.endocrine.org/doi/full/10.1210/edrv.20.3.0371http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10368777?tool=bestpractice.com无个人/家族静脉血栓形成史的年轻女性服用口服避孕药罹患静脉血栓栓塞的绝对风险仍然较低。口服避孕药和激素替代治疗可以导致蛋白 S 水平减少,凝血因子 VII 和 VIII 的水平增加,纤维蛋白溶解增加,以及活化的 APC 抵抗。[78]Vandenbroucke JP, Rosing J, Bloemenkamp KW, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of venous thrombosis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1527-1535.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11357157?tool=bestpractice.com[79]Wu O, Robertson L, Langhorne P, et al. Oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy, thrombophilias and the risk of venous thromboembolism: a systematic review. The Thrombosis: Risk and Economic Assessment of Thrombophilia Screening (TREATS) Study. Thromb Haemost. 2005;94:17-25.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16113779?tool=bestpractice.com[80]Cosman F, Baz-Hecht M, Cushman M, et al. Short-term effects of estrogen, tamoxifen and raloxifene on hemostasis: a randomized-controlled study and review of the literature. Thromb Res. 2005;116:1-13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15850603?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Eilertsen AL, Sandvik L, Mowinckel MC, et al. Differential effects of conventional and low dose oral hormone therapy (HT), tibolone, and raloxifene on coagulation and fibrinolysis. Thromb Res. 2007;120:371-379.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17156824?tool=bestpractice.com[82]van Baal WM, Emeis JJ, van der Mooren MJ, et al. Impaired procoagulant-anticoagulant balance during hormone replacement therapy? A randomised, placebo-controlled 12-week study. Thromb Haemost. 2000;83:29-34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10669150?tool=bestpractice.com经皮激素替代治疗制剂可能比口服配方的风险低。[76]Rosendaal FR, van Hylckama Vlieg A, Tanis BC, et al. Estrogens, progestogens and thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2003;1:1371-1380.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12871270?tool=bestpractice.com口服避孕药或者激素替代治疗开始后的前 12 月内,静脉血栓栓塞的发生率最高。[76]Rosendaal FR, van Hylckama Vlieg A, Tanis BC, et al. Estrogens, progestogens and thrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2003;1:1371-1380.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12871270?tool=bestpractice.com选择性雌激素受体调节剂治疗(如他莫昔芬\雷洛昔芬)增加凝血因子 VIII 和 IX 及 von Willebrand 因子,减少蛋白 C 和抗凝血酶的水平。[80]Cosman F, Baz-Hecht M, Cushman M, et al. Short-term effects of estrogen, tamoxifen and raloxifene on hemostasis: a randomized-controlled study and review of the literature. Thromb Res. 2005;116:1-13.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15850603?tool=bestpractice.com[81]Eilertsen AL, Sandvik L, Mowinckel MC, et al. Differential effects of conventional and low dose oral hormone therapy (HT), tibolone, and raloxifene on coagulation and fibrinolysis. Thromb Res. 2007;120:371-379.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17156824?tool=bestpractice.com他莫昔芬和雷洛昔芬使罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险增加 2-3 倍,尤其是对于具有易栓条件(比如凝血因子 V Leiden)的患者。
化疗:接受化疗的肿瘤患者罹患静脉血栓栓塞的总发生率是6%。对于新诊断的骨髓瘤患者,高剂量的地塞米松联合沙立度胺或来那度胺的方案与静脉血栓栓塞的高发生率有关(8%-75%),而单纯使用沙立度胺或来那度胺的患者发生率为 3%。[83]Palumbo A, Rajkumar SV, Dimopoulos MA, et al; International Myeloma Working Group. Prevention of thalidomide- and lenalidomide-associated thrombosis in myeloma. Leukemia. 2008;22:414-423.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18094721?tool=bestpractice.com急性淋巴细胞白血病患者,接受门冬酰胺酶治疗导致静脉血栓栓塞发病率增加将近 5 倍。[84]De Stefano V, Sora F, Rossi E, et al. The risk of thrombosis in patients with acute leukemia: occurrence of thrombosis at diagnosis and during treatment. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3:1985-1992.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16102104?tool=bestpractice.com
手术:患静脉血栓的风险取决于手术类型和其他潜在的风险因素。骨科大手术后发生率为 40%-60% ,普通外科术后发生率为 15% 到 40% 。[54]Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy. Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2_suppl):e691S-e736S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315276?tool=bestpractice.com可能由于术后易栓状态引起。手术创伤可能导致组织因子暴露并随后激活凝血。[85]Dahl OE. Mechanisms of hypercoagulability. Thromb Haemost. 1999;82:902-906.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10605801?tool=bestpractice.com
长途航班(>4 小时):一项队列研究显示健康人群乘坐 4 小时以上航班罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险是 1/6000。[86]World Health Organization. WHO research into global hazards of travel (WRIGHT) project. Final report of phase 1. 2007. http://www.who.int/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/wright_project/phase1_report/WRIGHT%20REPORT.pdf亚组健康志愿者乘坐 8 小时航班后,检测发现凝血和纤维蛋白溶解激活,以及凝血酶生成的标记物增加。这些发现提示在飞行中继发的高凝固性(不同于久坐不动)增加了静脉血栓栓塞的风险。[86]World Health Organization. WHO research into global hazards of travel (WRIGHT) project. Final report of phase 1. 2007. http://www.who.int/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/wright_project/phase1_report/WRIGHT%20REPORT.pdf静脉血栓栓塞的风险随着其他危险因素的增加而增加。[86]World Health Organization. WHO research into global hazards of travel (WRIGHT) project. Final report of phase 1. 2007. http://www.who.int/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.who.int/cardiovascular_diseases/wright_project/phase1_report/WRIGHT%20REPORT.pdf[87]Arya R, Barnes JA, Hossain U, et al. Long-haul flights and the risk of venous thrombosis: a significant risk only when additional risk factors present. Br J Haematol. 2002;116:653-654.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11849227?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Cannagieter SC, Doggen SJM, van Houwelingen HC, et al. Travel-related venous thrombosis: results from a large population-based case control study (MEGA study). PLoS Med. 2006;3:e307.http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.0030307http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16933962?tool=bestpractice.com
年龄:与活化的凝血因子 VII、IX 和 X,以及因子 VIII、纤维蛋白原和 D-二聚体的增加有关(纤维蛋白溶解的标记物),它们都与血栓形成风险增加有关。[89]Mari D, Mannucci PM, Coppola R, et al. Hypercoagulability in centenarians: the paradox of successful aging. Blood. 1995;85:3144-3149.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7756646?tool=bestpractice.com与年龄增加相关的其他合并疾病的增加也可以进一步提高凝血因子水平。