许多易栓症患者是无症状的;常规检测后可能诊断为遗传性易栓症。血液高凝状态最常见的症状是深静脉血栓形成 (DVT) 和肺栓塞 (PE),它们都被称为静脉血栓栓塞。目前尚未明确易栓症是否会增加动脉血栓的风险。
虽然已确定很多因素可能增加血栓风险,至少 50% 的有血栓史的患者详细的实验室检查却未能检测到异常。[3]Baglin T, Gray E, Greaves M, et al; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Clinical guidelines for testing for heritable thrombophilia. Br J Haematol. 2010;149:209-220.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.08022.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20128794?tool=bestpractice.com此外,易栓症的检查是有争议的,因为一个患有静脉血栓栓塞的患者被诊断为遗传性易栓症时,其治疗并不会发生改变,尤其是在急性病例下。[102]Middeldorp S, van Hylckama Vlieg. Does thrombophilia testing help in the clinical management of patients? Br J Haematol. 2008;143:321-335.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18710381?tool=bestpractice.com
病史与检查
静脉血栓栓塞家族史是应该与既往血栓形成史(尤其是静脉血栓栓塞发生的年龄),静脉血栓栓塞发生的其他危险因素,发生部位以及确诊静脉血栓栓塞的诊断程序的评估一同进行。[103]Heit JA. Thrombophilia: common questions on laboratory assessment and management. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2007;127-135.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2007/1/127http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024620?tool=bestpractice.com既往史应该集中在与静脉血栓栓塞相关的基础疾病和可以诱发静脉血栓栓塞的药物治疗上。
遗传性易栓症的类型包括:[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com
抗凝血酶 III 缺乏
蛋白 C 缺乏
蛋白 S 缺乏
血浆纤维蛋白溶酶原缺乏
异常纤维蛋白原血症
凝血因子 V Leiden 突变
凝血酶原基因突变
凝血因子 VIII、IX 和 XI 水平增高
纤维蛋白原升高
高同种半胱氨酸血症
镰状细胞病
获得性易栓症的病因包括:[4]Crowther MA, Kelton JG. Congenital thrombophilic states associated with venous thrombosis: a qualitative overview and proposed classification system. Ann Intern Med. 2003;138:128-134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12529095?tool=bestpractice.com
阵发性睡眠性血红蛋白尿症
肾病综合征
恶性肿瘤
骨髓增生性疾病
弥散性血管内凝血 (DIC)
妊娠/产后
急性炎症状态
HIV 感染
Behcet 病
磷脂抗体(例如狼疮抗凝物,抗心磷脂抗体)
恶性肿瘤
化疗
手术
肝素诱导的血小板减少症 (HIT)
口服避孕药,雌激素治疗
吸烟
肥胖
长途飞行(4 小时以上)
血栓形成和出血风险评估。
血栓形成和出血的风险评估对指导恰当的治疗很重要。Department of Health (UK): risk assessment for venous thromboembolism (VTE)
所有外科患者和明显减少活动的内科患者都应该进行正式的血栓形成和出血风险的入院评估。
存在以下任意一项即被定义为血栓形成高风险:
血栓形成低风险被定义为无高危因素。然而,以上列表不全,因此临床医生应该考虑不同个案的额外风险。
如果患者出现以下任意一项,则被定义为有大出血的风险:
提倡妊娠期间每次产前预约,每次入院期间,和分娩后都进行静脉血栓栓塞风险评估。英国皇家妇产科医师学会为此发表了一个风险评估的工具。[104]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium. Greentop guideline 37a. April 2015. http://www.rcog.org.uk/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg-37a.pdf
常规实验室检测
可能存在血液高凝状态的患者需进行以下检查。
全血细胞计数:全部患者都应该评估。不明原因的贫血可能与恶性肿瘤有关。[50]Trujillo-Santos J, Prandoni P, Rivron-Guillot K, et al. Clinical outcome in patients with venous thromboembolism and hidden cancer: findings from the RIETE Registry. J Thromb Haemost. 2008;6:251-255.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18021305?tool=bestpractice.com不明原因细胞压积或白细胞或血小板计数持续性升高可能提示存在骨髓增生性疾病。[105]Tefferi A, Thiele J, Orazi A, et al. Proposals and rationale for revision of the World Health Organization diagnostic criteria for polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, and primary myelofibrosis: recommendations from an ad hoc international expert panel. Blood. 2007;110:1092-1097.http://www.bloodjournal.org/content/110/4/1092http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17488875?tool=bestpractice.com肝素治疗后 5 到 10 天血小板计数下降 30% 到 50% 可能提示肝素诱导的血小板减少症。[102]Middeldorp S, van Hylckama Vlieg. Does thrombophilia testing help in the clinical management of patients? Br J Haematol. 2008;143:321-335.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18710381?tool=bestpractice.com血小板减少是弥散性血管内凝血的常见特点。[70]Levi M, Toh CH, Thachil J, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of disseminated intravascular coagulation. British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Br J Haematol. 2009;145:24-33.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19222477?tool=bestpractice.com
血涂片:怀疑溶血性贫血或慢性 DIC,或者全血细胞计数指数不正常时进行。微血管病性溶血性贫血的特点包括与血小板减少症相关的红细胞破碎。全血细胞减少和巨红细胞可提示阵发性睡眠性血红蛋白尿症。
活化部分凝血活酶时间 (aPTT):应对疑似高凝状态的病例进行评估。停止抗凝治疗后 aPTT(活化部分凝血活酶时间)减少,其静脉血栓栓塞复发风险增加 2 倍。[106]Legnani C, Mattarozzi S, Cini M, et al. Abnormally short activated partial thromboplastin time values are associated with increased risk of recurrence of venous thromboembolism after oral anticoagulation withdrawal. Br J Haematol. 2006;134:227-232.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16846482?tool=bestpractice.com活化部分凝血活酶时间的缩短反映了凝血因子 IX,VIII,和 XI 水平升高。aPTT延长(使用对狼疮抗凝物敏感的促凝血酶原激酶)提示可能为潜在的狼疮抗凝物。aPTT延长结合其他临床特点可支持DIC的诊断。[106]Legnani C, Mattarozzi S, Cini M, et al. Abnormally short activated partial thromboplastin time values are associated with increased risk of recurrence of venous thromboembolism after oral anticoagulation withdrawal. Br J Haematol. 2006;134:227-232.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16846482?tool=bestpractice.com
纤维蛋白原:应对疑似高凝状态的病例进行评估。纤维蛋白原水平下降合并其他证据支持 DIC 或异常纤维蛋白原血症的诊断。[22]Acharya SS, Dimichele DM. Rare inherited disorders of fibrinogen. Haemophilia. 2008;14:1151-1158.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141154?tool=bestpractice.com[107]Toh CH, Hoots WK. The scoring system of the Scientific and Standardisation Committee on Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis: a 5-year overview. J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5:604-606.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17096704?tool=bestpractice.com水平增加静脉血栓栓塞风险增加 2 倍。[77]Cosman F, Lindsay R. Selective estrogen receptor modulators: clinical spectrum. Endocr Rev. 1999;20:418-434.http://press.endocrine.org/doi/full/10.1210/edrv.20.3.0371http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10368777?tool=bestpractice.com
凝血酶原时间:应对疑似高凝状态的病例进行评估。有其他支持性证据(如 aPTT 延长、血小板计数低、纤维蛋白原低、D-二聚体高)和与 PT 延长相关的潜在疾病情况存在时,凝血酶原时间延长提示 DIC。[107]Toh CH, Hoots WK. The scoring system of the Scientific and Standardisation Committee on Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis: a 5-year overview. J Thromb Haemost. 2007;5:604-606.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17096704?tool=bestpractice.com
D-二聚体(纤维蛋白溶解标志物):应对疑似高凝状态的病例进行评估。水平升高可能表明凝血系统的激活。水平升高静脉会导致血栓栓塞初发的风险增加超过 2 倍。[108]Andreescu AC, Cushman M, Rosendaal FR. D-dimer as a risk factor for deep vein thrombosis: the Leiden Thrombophilia Study. Thromb Haemost. 2002;87:47-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11858188?tool=bestpractice.com抗凝治疗完成后 D-二聚体正常者静脉血栓栓塞复发风险较低,然而 D-二聚体增高则预示着静脉血栓栓塞复发风险升高。[109]Douketis J, Tosetto A, Marcucci M, et al. Patient-level meta-analysis: effect of measurement timing, threshold, and patient age on ability of D-dimer testing to assess recurrence risk after unprovoked venous thromboembolism. Ann Intern Med. 2010;153:523-531.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20956709?tool=bestpractice.com可作为临床风险评分的一个部分辅助鉴别那些能从延长抗凝治疗中获益的妇女,但需要进一步的临床研究。[90]Rodger MA, Kahn SR, Wells PS, et al. Identifying unprovoked thromboembolism at low risk for recurrence who can discontinue anticoagulant therapy. CMAJ. 2008;179:417-426.http://www.cmaj.ca/content/179/5/417.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18725614?tool=bestpractice.com
血清白蛋白、肌酐、甘油三酯和胆固醇:怀疑高凝状态时应该进行评估以明确是否有肾病综合征。肾功能异常,低蛋白血症,高胆固醇血症/高甘油三酯血症提示肾病综合征。
易栓症筛查
第一次静脉血栓栓塞发生年龄< 50 岁的患者、无缘由的(由于航空旅行或自发的没有已知触发因素或风险因素)或复发性静脉血栓栓塞患者、血栓形成发生在少见部位的患者,新生儿暴发性紫癜,或华法林诱发的皮肤坏死患者可考虑进行易栓症筛查。[110]Grody WW, Griffin JH, Taylor AK, et al. American College of Medical Genetics Consensus Statement on factor V Leiden mutation testing. Genet Med. 2001;3:139-148.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11280951?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Press RD, Bauer KA, Kujovich JL, et al. Clinical utility of factor V Leiden (R506Q) testing for diagnosis and management of thromboembolic disorders. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2002;126:1304-1318.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12421138?tool=bestpractice.com对于有静脉血栓栓塞家族史的患者,尤其是其一级亲属在年幼时发病的情况,也应该考虑进行筛查。无有力的临床证据的儿童应避免进行筛查。[3]Baglin T, Gray E, Greaves M, et al; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Clinical guidelines for testing for heritable thrombophilia. Br J Haematol. 2010;149:209-220.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.08022.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20128794?tool=bestpractice.com静脉血栓栓塞在儿童中罕见,因为儿童的蛋白 C 和 S 及抗凝血酶的正常水平低于成年人的参考范围,因此解读儿童的蛋白 C 和 S 和抗凝血酶水平有困难。对于习惯性流产的妇女进行遗传性易栓症筛查是有争议的,因为目前尚未建立因果关系及基于循证的治疗方法。[5]Rodger MA, Paidas M, McLintock C, et al. Inherited thrombophilia and pregnancy complications revisited. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;112:320-324.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18669729?tool=bestpractice.com对于中心静脉插管相关血栓形成、视网膜静脉阻塞,或者未经选择的上肢深静脉血栓形成的患者,不推荐进行筛查。[3]Baglin T, Gray E, Greaves M, et al; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Clinical guidelines for testing for heritable thrombophilia. Br J Haematol. 2010;149:209-220.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.08022.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20128794?tool=bestpractice.com对没有家族史的老年患者,进行遗传性易栓症筛查不太可能获得更多信息,应该避免。[3]Baglin T, Gray E, Greaves M, et al; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Clinical guidelines for testing for heritable thrombophilia. Br J Haematol. 2010;149:209-220.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2141.2009.08022.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20128794?tool=bestpractice.com
基本的检测项目包括:
蛋白 C 水平
游离蛋白 C 水平
活化蛋白 C 抵抗
抗凝血酶水平
凝血酶原基因突变 (G-20210-A)
通常在华法林治疗停止后 4 到 6 周检测遗传性易栓症指标蛋白 C 和 S 急性血栓形成和华法林治疗(可影响所有维生素K依赖性蛋白质)时下降。肝素治疗可以减少抗凝血酶水平和干扰狼疮抗凝物试验 (基于凝块的)。[103]Heit JA. Thrombophilia: common questions on laboratory assessment and management. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2007;127-135.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2007/1/127http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024620?tool=bestpractice.com肝病、口服避孕药片和激素疗法也能导致抗凝血酶和蛋白 C 和 S 水平下降。妊娠导致蛋白 S 生理性下降和蛋白 C 水平升高。这些情况下应避免进行检测,且这些条件下的结果需谨慎解读。异常结果应该重复检测确定。
易栓症的其他检测
虽然并不作为易栓症筛查的一部分,但以下几点也应评估:
因子 V Leiden 突变:只在样本提示 APCR 减少或者有因子 V Leiden 家族史的情况下检测基因分型。[103]Heit JA. Thrombophilia: common questions on laboratory assessment and management. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2007;127-135.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2007/1/127http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024620?tool=bestpractice.com
狼疮抗凝物和抗心磷脂抗体:只有出现原因不明的 aPTT 延长,考虑胎盘梗死引起的习惯性早期流产,存在不明原因的血栓形成倾向时进行评估。多达 20% 的静脉血栓栓塞患者在发病之前就有高水平的抗心磷脂抗体。[60]Ginsburg KS, Liang MH, Newcomer L, et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies and the risk for ischemic stroke and venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1992;117:997-1002.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1443986?tool=bestpractice.com除了临床标准外,还需要间隔至少12周的2次重复的阳性结果才能确诊抗磷脂综合征。[112]Cornuz J, Pearson SD, Creager MA, et al. Importance of findings on the initial evaluation for cancer in patients with symptomatic idiopathic deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:785-793.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8928984?tool=bestpractice.com
同型半胱氨酸:只在考虑患者有静脉血栓栓塞风险时偶尔检测。其对血液高凝固性的作用还存在争议;但是高同型半胱氨酸血症可能并不会引起静脉血栓栓塞。[36]Den Heijer M, Lewington S, Clarke R. Homocysteine, MTHFR and risk of venous thrombosis: a meta-analysis of published epidemiological studies. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3:292-299.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15670035?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Bezemer ID, Doggen CJM, Vos HL, et al. No association between the common MTHFR 677C->T polymorphism and venous thrombosis: results from the MEGA Study. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167:497-501.http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=769649http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17353498?tool=bestpractice.com异常结果应该重复检测确定。[103]Heit JA. Thrombophilia: common questions on laboratory assessment and management. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2007;127-135.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2007/1/127http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024620?tool=bestpractice.com不建议做亚甲基四氢叶酸还原酶多态性的进一步检查。
因子 VIII 水平:偶尔检测。是黑人中血栓形成风险最重要的实验室检测指标。[15]Patel RK, Ford E, Thumpston J, et al. Risk factors for venous thrombosis in the black population. Thromb Haemost. 2003;90:835-838.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14597978?tool=bestpractice.com水平高于 150 U/升,静脉血栓栓塞的首发风险高达 10 倍,复发风险高达 6 倍。[31]Koster T, Blann AD, Briet E, et al. Role of clotting factor VIII in effect of von Willebrand factor on occurrence of deep-vein thrombosis. Lancet. 1995;345:152-155.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7823669?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Kraaijenhagen RA, in't Anker PS, Koopman MM, et al. High plasma concentration of factor VIIIc is a major risk factor for venous thromboembolism. Thromb Haemost. 2000;83:5-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10669145?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Kyrle PA, Minar E, Hirschl M, et al. High plasma levels of factor VIII and the risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:457-462.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10950667?tool=bestpractice.com急性血栓形成时应避免进行检测。[103]Heit JA. Thrombophilia: common questions on laboratory assessment and management. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2007;127-135.http://asheducationbook.hematologylibrary.org/cgi/content/full/2007/1/127http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18024620?tool=bestpractice.com
流式细胞术检测阵发性睡眠性血红蛋白尿症 (PNH):全血细胞减少症患者和/或溶血性贫血患者考虑检测。对选择何种PNH诊断方法进行考察,对克隆大小进行测量。[72]Hill A, Richards SJ, Hillmen P. Recent developments in the understanding and management of paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria. Br J Haematol. 2007;137:181-192.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17408457?tool=bestpractice.com多色分析可以发现低至 0.01% 的小克隆。[113]Richards SJ, Hill A, Hillmen P. Recent advances in the diagnosis, monitoring, and management of patients with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. Cytometry B Clin Cytom. 2007;72:291-298.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cyto.b.20358/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17549742?tool=bestpractice.com
PCR 检测 JAK2 基因突变:在真性红细胞增多症患者中发生率大于 95%,在原发性血小板增多症患者中高达 60%。[64]Campbell PJ, Green AR. The myeloproliferative disorders. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:2452-2466.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17151367?tool=bestpractice.com内脏静脉血栓形成可能表现为隐性骨髓增生异常的特点,高达 59% 的患者存在 JAK2 突变。[63]Hexner EO. JAK2 V617F: implications for thrombosis in myeloproliferative diseases. Curr Opin Hematol. 2007;14:450-454.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17934351?tool=bestpractice.com[114]Patel RK, Lea NC, Heneghan MA, et al. Prevalence of the activating JAK2 tyrosine kinase mutation V617F in the Budd-Chiari Syndrome. Gastroenterology. 2006;130:2031-2038.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16762626?tool=bestpractice.com
HIT(肝素诱导的血小板减少症)检测:缺少提示诊断的临床特征时应避免检测。验前概率应使用“4T 评分“进行评估。包括使用肝素后血小板计数下降的时间,血小板计数从基线降到最低点变化的百分比,有/无血栓形成,无血小板减少症的替代诊断。[74]Linkins LA, Dans AL, Moores LK, et al. Treatment and prevention of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e495S-e530S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleID=1159542http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574270?tool=bestpractice.com血小板活化分析的灵敏度为 85%,经验丰富的实验室可通过使用洗涤后的血小板提高检测的灵敏度。ELISA(酶联免疫吸附试验)检测 IgG 灵敏度高(80% 到 100%),但是特异度低。结果应结合所选试验法及验前概率来解释。[115]Watson H, Davidson S, Keeling D; Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force of the British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: second edition. Br J Haematol. 2012;159:528-540.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjh.12059/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23043677?tool=bestpractice.com
成像检查
影像学检查可以对恶性肿瘤进行筛查。
胸部 X 线:无诱因的(特发性)静脉血栓栓塞都应该考虑进行以排除潜伏性恶性肿瘤。[112]Cornuz J, Pearson SD, Creager MA, et al. Importance of findings on the initial evaluation for cancer in patients with symptomatic idiopathic deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:785-793.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8928984?tool=bestpractice.com
腹部 CT:显著增加恶性肿瘤的检出率。[52]Carrier M, Le Gal G, Wells PS, et al. Systematic review: the Trousseau syndrome revisited: should we screen extensively for cancer in patients with venous thromboembolism? Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:323-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18765702?tool=bestpractice.com对潜伏性恶性肿瘤的检出优于腹部超声和肿瘤标志物检测。但是,早期检出的生存获益尚未阐明。[52]Carrier M, Le Gal G, Wells PS, et al. Systematic review: the Trousseau syndrome revisited: should we screen extensively for cancer in patients with venous thromboembolism? Ann Intern Med. 2008;149:323-333.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18765702?tool=bestpractice.com
腹部超声: CT 无法检出潜伏性恶性肿瘤时使用。
其他试验:
肿瘤标志物
这些包括前列腺特异性抗原,针对结直肠癌的癌胚抗原,针对卵巢上皮癌的 CA 125。它们可以作为一个广泛的筛选策略的一部分用以对无明显诱因(特发性)的静脉血栓栓塞患者进行潜伏性恶性肿瘤的检测。但是,肿瘤标志物是非特异性的而且对大多数 VTE 相关的肿瘤并不敏感。[112]Cornuz J, Pearson SD, Creager MA, et al. Importance of findings on the initial evaluation for cancer in patients with symptomatic idiopathic deep venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:785-793.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8928984?tool=bestpractice.com
尿液分析
收集24小时的尿液标本检测其中蛋白质,或收集即时尿液检测其中的蛋白/肌酐比值,以排除肾病综合征。[65]Mahmoodi BK, ten Kate MK, Waanders F, et al. High absolute risks and predictors of venous and arterial thromboembolic events in patients with nephrotic syndrome: results from a large retrospective cohort study. Circulation. 2008;117:224-230.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/117/2/224.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18158362?tool=bestpractice.com