大多数患者无症状(如之前没有静脉血栓栓塞 (VTE)),因此不需要治疗。那些有静脉血栓栓塞风险和其他危险因素(如住院手术、妊娠、恶性肿瘤)的患者应该考虑进行血栓预防。
有 VTE 风险的患者
无出血风险的患者
这些患者应该接受药物预防。
一般使用肝素:普通肝素 (UFH) 或低分子肝素 (LMWH) 。低分子肝素比普通肝素有更好的药代动力学。
也可使用磺达肝素、达比加群、利伐沙班、阿哌沙班、阿司匹林或华法林(一种维生素 K 拮抗剂)。
治疗持续时间和药物的选择应根据危险因素和潜在的静脉血栓栓塞的风险进行调整。
有高出血风险的患者
这些患者应该接受机械预防的方法,包括梯度压力袜 (GCS) 和使用间歇充气加压 (IPC) 设备。[100]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e195S-226S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleID=1159462http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com
应该选择尺寸大小合适的设备和正确使用该设备;如果长期使用,设备每天只能短时间取下(如当患者活动或洗澡时)。设备不应影响下床活动。
如果出血的风险降低,应该考虑进行药物血栓预防。
高凝状态应该被纳入血栓预防风险评估工具。Department of Health (UK): risk assessment for venous thromboembolism (VTE)
住院
被认为有血栓栓塞的风险的患者,在因急性疾病(活动障碍)入院时、大手术前和术后,都应该考虑血栓预防。[100]Kahn SR, Lim W, Dunn AS, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonsurgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e195S-226S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleID=1159462http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315261?tool=bestpractice.com[120]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e227S-277S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159472http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com多数情况下,治疗应一直持续到出院。中止可导致潜在高凝状态的药物治疗(如雌激素治疗、口服避孕药、沙立度胺或其衍生物)或许比较合适。
手术
英国国家卫生与临床优化研究院 (NICE) 和/或美国胸科医师学会 (American College of Chest Physicians, ACCP) 的建议包括:[121]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Venous thromboembolism: reducing the risk for patients in hospital. Clinical guideline 92. June 2015. http://www.nice.org.uk/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg92/chapter/introduction[120]Gould MK, Garcia DA, Wren SM, et al. Prevention of VTE in nonorthopedic surgical patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e227S-277S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159472http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315263?tool=bestpractice.com[122]Falck-Ytter Y, Francis CW, Johanson NA, et al. Prevention of VTE in orthopedic surgery patients: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(suppl 2):e278S-325S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159591http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315265?tool=bestpractice.com
没有其他危险因素的低 VTE 风险的普通外科手术:术后早期、经常活动,无需血栓预防
中等 VTE 风险的普通外科手术:药物血栓预防,直到出院
高 VTE 风险的普通外科手术:药物和机械性血栓预防,直到出院
无其他危险因素的低 VTE 风险妇科和泌尿手术(或腹腔镜手术):术后早期、经常活动;无需血栓预防
高 VTE 风险妇产科或泌尿外科大手术:术前应用低分子肝素或普通肝素和/或机械性预防,一直到患者可以走动
全髋关节置换术、全膝关节置换术:入院时给予机械性血栓预防,术后 1 到 12 小时药物血栓预防
髋部骨折手术:从入院开始机械预防和低分子肝素或普通肝素预防。术前 12 小时停止药物预防,术后 6 到 12 小时重新开始
严重创伤或脊髓损伤:如果不能活动,整个入院和住院康复期间使用机械和药物血栓预防
癌症或恶性肿瘤
非卧床的肿瘤患者进行血栓预防存在争议,不推荐。[123]Lyman GH, Khorana AA, Kuderer NM, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update. J Clin Oncol. 2013;31:2189-2204.http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/31/17/2189.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23669224?tool=bestpractice.com美国临床肿瘤学会建议接受沙立度胺或其衍生物结合化疗或地塞米松治疗的多发性骨髓瘤患者,可从同时使用低分子量肝素 (LMWH) 或低剂量阿司匹林中获益。[124]Lyman GH, Bohlke K, Khorana AA, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update 2014. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33:654-656.http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/33/6/654.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25605844?tool=bestpractice.com[125]El Accaoui RN, Shamseddeen WA, Taher AT. Thalidomide and thrombosis. A meta-analysis. Thromb Haemost. 2007;97:1031-1036.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17549307?tool=bestpractice.com沙立度胺(或衍生物)治疗期间应该给予预防药低分子肝素或阿司匹林。国际骨髓瘤工作小组提出基于单个患者危险因素评估的血栓预防,表明单用阿司匹林仅适用于那些低风险患者,有 2 种或多种危险因素的患者接受低分子量肝素或华法林治疗。[83]Palumbo A, Rajkumar SV, Dimopoulos MA, et al; International Myeloma Working Group. Prevention of thalidomide- and lenalidomide-associated thrombosis in myeloma. Leukemia. 2008;22:414-423.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18094721?tool=bestpractice.com推荐在住院治疗期间对患有活跃癌症的患者进行血栓预防。[124]Lyman GH, Bohlke K, Khorana AA, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update 2014. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33:654-656.http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/33/6/654.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25605844?tool=bestpractice.com在重大癌症手术后应进行 7 到 10 天的血栓预防,同时考虑在重大腹部或骨盆手术后延长预防治疗达 4 周。[124]Lyman GH, Bohlke K, Khorana AA, et al. Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis and treatment in patients with cancer: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update 2014. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33:654-656.http://jco.ascopubs.org/content/33/6/654.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25605844?tool=bestpractice.com
妊娠和剖腹产后
对有有血栓形成倾向而无症状的孕妇的理想治疗方法仍然是一个有争议的话题。虽然遗传性易栓症合并妊娠有协同增加静脉血栓栓塞的风险,杂合子凝血因子 V Leiden、蛋白 C 缺乏或凝血酶原基因突变者的绝对风险仍是低的。
I 型抗凝血酶缺乏、凝血因子V Leiden 纯合子或复杂性杂合子、凝血酶原基因突变的无症状女性罹患静脉血栓栓塞的风险最高。美国胸科医师学会 (ACCP)、英国皇家妇产科医师协会和意大利血栓和止血协会 (SISET) 建议抗凝血酶缺乏但无症状的妊娠女性应当在整个妊娠期和产后 4 到 6 周内接受药物性血栓预防治疗。[54]Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy. Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2_suppl):e691S-e736S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315276?tool=bestpractice.com[104]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium. Greentop guideline 37a. April 2015. http://www.rcog.org.uk/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg-37a.pdf[126]Lussana F, Dentali F, Abbate R, et al; Italian Society for Haemostasis and Thrombosis. Screening for thrombophilia and antithrombotic prophylaxis in pregnancy: Guidelines of the Italian Society for Haemostasis and Thrombosis (SISET). Thromb Res. 2009;124:e19-e25.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19671474?tool=bestpractice.com他们建议对有其他遗传性易栓症的无症状女性进行个人风险评估,分娩前临床监测或药物血栓预防(低分子量肝素或普通肝素),以及产后血栓预防。
对于抗磷脂综合征且有习惯性流产或妊娠晚期流产史,但之前无血栓静脉栓塞或动脉血栓的女性,整个妊娠期除阿司匹林外,推荐使用预防性肝素或低分子量肝素。
对于剖宫产后静脉血栓栓塞风险低的女性,建议早期、经常活动,无需血栓预防。剖宫产后有中等静脉血栓栓塞风险(除妊娠和剖宫产后有至少一个危险因素)的女性,ACCP建议在分娩后和住院期间药物血栓预防(低分子量肝素或普通肝素)或机械性血栓预防(结合梯度压力袜和/或间歇充气加压疗法)。[54]Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy. Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2_suppl):e691S-e736S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315276?tool=bestpractice.com有持续性危险因素的患者,应考虑出院后药物血栓预防 4-6 周。
具有多个额外血栓栓塞危险因素的被认为有高静脉血栓栓塞风险的剖腹产手术者,美国妇产科学院建议药物结合梯度压力袜和/或间歇气压疗法预防。[54]Bates SM, Greer IA, Middeldorp S, et al. VTE, thrombophilia, antithrombotic therapy, and pregnancy. Antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012;141(2_suppl):e691S-e736S.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1159497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315276?tool=bestpractice.com
英国皇家妇产科医师协会的指南建议:[104]Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the puerperium. Greentop guideline 37a. April 2015. http://www.rcog.org.uk/ (last accessed 26 October 2016).https://www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg-37a.pdf
所有女性都应在产前早期评估 VTE 风险
有 4 个或更多 VTE 危险因素的女性应在整个妊娠期间和产后 6 周接受血栓预防治疗
有 3 个危险因素的女性应从妊娠 28 周起和产后 6 周接受药物血栓预防治疗
无出血/分娩风险的产前住院女性在整个住院期间都应接受药物血栓预防治疗
已经进行紧急剖宫产、在伴有 1 个额外 VTE 危险因素的情况下计划进行剖宫产、或在伴有 2 个 VTE 危险因素的情况下进行阴道分娩的女性,应接受至少 10 天的药物血栓预防治疗,伴有持续性危险因素的患者则延长治疗至 6 周
产后长期住院和在产后再次住院的女性也应进行药物血栓预防治疗。