初始稳定生命体征和人员安置
初始评估和处理的重点在于稳定气道、呼吸和循环。对于无法保护气道或意识水平下降(格拉斯哥昏迷评分 [GCS]≤8 分)的患者,需要考虑进行气管插管,以保护气道。患者就诊时血压 (BP) 往往较高,当收缩压 (SBP)>180 mmHg 或平均动脉压 (MAP)>130 mmHg 时,需要进行治疗。当患者血压升高到上述程度时,持续动脉血压监测是有帮助的。对于视为有蛛网膜下腔出血且存在不稳定动脉瘤的患者,只要其脑灌注压 (cerebral perfusion pressure, CPP)>60 mmHg,将收缩压降至 160 mmHg 以下就是合理的。[59]Connolly ES Jr, Rabinstein AA, Carhuapoma JR, et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Council on Clinical Cardiology. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2012 Jun;43(6):1711-37.http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/43/6/1711.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22556195?tool=bestpractice.com 多项研究显示,与将收缩压控制在 140 至 179 mmHg 之间相比,将收缩压强化降至<140 mmHg 不会使临床结果恶化,也不会带来任何临床获益。将收缩压强化降至<140 mmHg,患者更有可能发生肾损伤。[60]Qureshi AI, Palesch YY, Barsan WG, et al.; ATACH-2 Trial Investigators and the Neurological Emergency Treatment Trials Network. Intensive blood-pressure lowering in patients with acute cerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2016 Sep 15;375(11):1033-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27276234?tool=bestpractice.com
考虑到以下潜在的风险和需求,所有急性出血性卒中患者应入住神经科重症监护病房 (ICU):
部分存在急性脑积水的患者需要紧急放置脑室外引流管。待患者稳定后,可将其转入专门的卒中单元进行进一步治疗。 [
]How do different forms of organized inpatient care compare with each other for people after stroke?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1682/full显示答案 [
]How do organized inpatient care units (stroke units) compare with general medical wards in providing care for people post stroke?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1597/full显示答案
无论出血部位位于哪里(小脑或非小脑),生命体征良好、神经系统功能稳定的患者均需留院观察,同时保证充足的饮水和营养。对患者的评估和治疗最好在神经内科 ICU 或专门的卒中单元内完成。因存在脑水肿或占位效应导致病情出现急剧恶化的可能,建议患者在全天均可进行急诊神经外科手术的医院留院观察;如初诊医院不具备以上条件,建议转院。
手术干预
手术清除血肿有助于挽救小脑出血患者的生命,尤其建议在嗜睡、生命体征不稳定或出血直径>3 cm 的患者中施行。但对于非小脑出血(即不含小脑和脑干出血的大脑出血)的患者而言,一项大型随机对照临床研究未发现患者可从手术中获益。[61]Mendelow AD, Gregson BA, Fernandes HM, et al. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haematomas in the International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Haemorrhage (STICH): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2005 Jan 29-Feb 4;365(9457):387-97.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15680453?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,在手术条件允许的情况下,如果患者存在临床失代偿的情况,也可考虑血肿清除术。研究人员还在继续探索哪种类型的颅内出血患者在外科干预中获益最大。[62]Anik I, Secer HI, Anik Y, et al. Meta-analyses of intracerebral hematoma treatment. Turk Neurosurg. 2011 Jan;21(1):6-14.http://www.turkishneurosurgery.org.tr/pdf/pdf_JTN_810.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21294085?tool=bestpractice.com 目前也有大量的研究在探索患者在颅内血肿微创引流术中的获益情况。一项大样本量的meta分析显示,幕上出血、特别是脑叶表浅出血且体积在 25-45 mL 的患者,能从中获益。[63]Zhou X, Chen J, Li Q, et al. Minimally invasive surgery for spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Stroke. 2012 Nov;43(11):2923-30.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/strokeaha.112.667535http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22989500?tool=bestpractice.com MISTIE 2 期临床试验评估了微创血肿清除术联合重组组织型纤溶酶原激活剂 (recombinant tissue plasminogen activator, r-TPA) 治疗脑出血的安全性和有效性,其结果显示,血肿清除与血肿周围水肿显著减轻相关。[64]Hanley DF, Thompson RE, Muschelli J, et al. Safety and efficacy of minimally invasive surgery plus alteplase in intracerebral haemorrhage evacuation (MISTIE): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 2 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2016 Nov;15(12):1228-37.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5154627/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27751554?tool=bestpractice.com STICH II期临床试验结果证实,脑叶出血患者,特别是伴有意识水平下降或逐渐发展至意识水平下降(GCS 9~12 分)的非昏迷患者,早期手术治疗可使患者的生存率略有提升。[65]Mendelow AD, Gregson BA, Rowan EN, et al; STICH II Investigators. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial lobar intracerebral haematomas (STICH II): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2013 Aug 3;382(9890):397-408.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23726393?tool=bestpractice.com 也有研究以脑室出血或主要为脑室出血且不存在血管畸形的患者为研究对象,单独评价了 r-TPA 在脑室内大血肿清除中的作用。[66]Webb AJ, Ullman NL, Mann S, et al. Resolution of intraventricular hemorrhage varies by ventricular region and dose of intraventricular thrombolytic: the Clot Lysis: Evaluating Accelerated Resolution of IVH (CLEAR IVH) program. Stroke. 2012 Jun;43(6):1666-8.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.650523http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22474059?tool=bestpractice.com 尽管脑室内 r-TPA 方法的并发症发生率相当低,但在结果或死亡率方面并没有显著获益。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
在脑底异常血管网病(烟雾病)患者中,可以进行直接脑血管手术。一项研究显示,非手术治疗患者的临床结果和搭桥手术预防再出血的效果取决于出血部位。在烟雾病中,与发生在前部区域的出血相比,后部出血的再出血风险较高。对于后部出血患者,搭桥手术可能有更大获益。[36]Takahashi JC, Funaki T, Houkin K, et al; JAM Trial Investigators. Significance of the hemorrhagic site for recurrent bleeding: prespecified analysis in the Japan Adult Moyamoya trial. Stroke. 2016 Jan;47(1):37-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26645256?tool=bestpractice.com
针对颅内压 (ICP) 升高的处理
由于血肿增大、水肿积聚或脑积水的影响,颅内出血患者存在 ICP 升高的风险。以下患者可能需要考虑进行 ICP 监测和治疗:GCS< 8 分的患者,临床证据支持存在小脑幕切迹疝的患者,存在严重脑室内出血 (IVH) 或脑积水的患者。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
建议采用分级分步的方法管理 ICP:[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
1.将床头抬高 30°
气管插管和机械通气:自主通气;当发生颅内高压和/或脑疝时,可临时轻度过度通气。
球囊面罩通气的动画演示
气管插管的动画演示
镇痛和镇静
脑脊液脑室外引流术
大脑灌注压 (cerebral perfusion pressure, CPP) 50-70 mmHg[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
用甘露醇或高渗生理盐水进行渗透疗法
神经肌肉阻滞/深度镇静
高剂量巴比妥类药物(减少能量代谢和脑血容量)
不应使用皮质类固醇,因为它们在 ICH 中无效并会增加并发症。
血液中的物质或血肿的占位效应可能导致脑脊液在脑室内流动受阻,且以中脑导水管处的阻塞最为常见。此外,血液中的物质也会影响蛛网膜颗粒对脑脊液的吸收(即交通性脑积水)。这些情况不稳定的患者需要申请神经外科会诊,考虑是否需要手术或脑室外引流。[61]Mendelow AD, Gregson BA, Fernandes HM, et al. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haematomas in the International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Haemorrhage (STICH): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2005 Jan 29-Feb 4;365(9457):387-97.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15680453?tool=bestpractice.com 当计算机体层成像 (CT) 或磁共振成像 (MRI) 结果显示存在脑积水时,放置脑室外引流管进行分流可降低 ICP,促进患者神经系统功能的恢复。另一方面,对于脑干压迫患者来说,认为对小脑出血进行脑室引流是不够的,事实上可能更加有害。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com 随着科技的进步,出现了多种新的多模式监测技术,例如针对脑血流量、脑组织氧分压和脑乳酸、丙酮酸和葡萄糖含量的有创性监测。但这些设备确切的临床应用价值和对远期结局的影响仍有待于大型临床试验来进一步检验。
误吸预防
吞咽损害在卒中患者中很常见,无论临床或神经系统稳定性或出血位置如何,并且与吸入性肺炎的风险增加(范围从 20% 至 60%)有关。[70]Martino R, Foley N, Bhogal S, et al. Dysphagia after stroke: incidence, diagnosis, and pulmonary complications. Stroke. 2005 Dec;36(12):2756-63.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/01.str.0000190056.76543.ebhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16269630?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Warusevitane A, Karunatilake D, Sim J, et al. Safety and effect of metoclopramide to prevent pneumonia in patients with stroke fed via nasogastric tubes trial. Stroke. 2015 Feb;46(2):454-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/strokeaha.114.006639http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25516196?tool=bestpractice.com 指南支持在卒中患者进食或饮水前行床旁吞咽试验。[72]Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2018 Mar;49(3):e46-99.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/STR.0000000000000158http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29367334?tool=bestpractice.com 建议进行多伦多床旁吞咽筛查试验。在完成吞咽能力的评估之前,患者应严格禁止经口进食。[72]Powers WJ, Rabinstein AA, Ackerson T, et al. 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2018 Mar;49(3):e46-99.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/STR.0000000000000158http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29367334?tool=bestpractice.com 不能进食的患者可经静脉给予等张液体补液(降低脑水肿发生的风险),并经鼻胃管、鼻肠管或经皮胃造瘘置管进行肠内营养。 [
]How does percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy compare with nasogastric tube feeding in people with swallowing disturbances?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1134/full显示答案 但是,即使通过鼻胃管喂食的患者也有因鼻胃管的存在而造成下食管功能障碍、胃返流和微量吸入加重,从而引发继发性肺炎的风险。[71]Warusevitane A, Karunatilake D, Sim J, et al. Safety and effect of metoclopramide to prevent pneumonia in patients with stroke fed via nasogastric tubes trial. Stroke. 2015 Feb;46(2):454-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/strokeaha.114.006639http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25516196?tool=bestpractice.com
癫痫发作治疗
4%-8% 病例的非小脑出血管理期间可出现癫痫发作。越来越多的证据表明,脑电图痫样发作(仅在脑电图 [EEG] 上检测到的癫痫)可能相当常见,但临床癫痫发作与神经系统结局和死亡率之间的关系仍不明确。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
预防性使用抗惊厥药并未证明能够带来任何益处,因此并不建议这样做。但是,应使用抗惊厥药来治疗临床癫痫和通过脑电图检查发现有癫痫电波的精神状态改变患者。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
血压管理
超过 70% 的急性缺血性或出血性卒中患者会出现高血压,这可能是对脑损伤的反应。[73]Bath PM, Woodhouse L, Scutt P, et al; ENOS Trial Investigators. Efficacy of nitric oxide, with or without continuing antihypertensive treatment, for management of high blood pressure in acute stroke (ENOS): a partial-factorial randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015 Feb 14;385(9968):617-28.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4343308/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25465108?tool=bestpractice.com 当患者血压升高到上述程度时,连续动脉血压监测是有帮助的。已有假设提出,血压降低不但能够减少扩大,还可能降低脑灌注压并促进缺血。[74]Anderson CS, Huang Y, Wang JG, et al. Intensive blood pressure reduction in acute cerebral haemorrhage trial (INTERACT): a randomised pilot trial. Lancet Neurol. 2008 May;7(5):391-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18396107?tool=bestpractice.com INTERACT2 临床试验表明,在患有脑出血 (ICH) 且 GCS>5 的患者中,积极降低 SBP 至<140 mmHg 是安全的,不会恶化结局。[75]Anderson CS, Heeley E, Huang Y, et al; INTERACT2 Investigators. Rapid blood-pressure lowering in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jun 20;368(25):2355-65.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1214609http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23713578?tool=bestpractice.com ATACH-2 试验显示,与将收缩压降至 140 至 179 mmHg 相比,将收缩压强化降至<139 mmHg,不会在功能性结果或死亡率方面带来额外的收益。[60]Qureshi AI, Palesch YY, Barsan WG, et al.; ATACH-2 Trial Investigators and the Neurological Emergency Treatment Trials Network. Intensive blood-pressure lowering in patients with acute cerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2016 Sep 15;375(11):1033-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27276234?tool=bestpractice.com 在强化降低收缩压的患者中,肾脏不良作用的发生率较高。
现有的指南给出了如下建议:[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
SBP≥200 mmHg 或 MAP≥150 mmHg:目标应为积极降低 SBP 至<160 mmHg,但如果没有急性降压的禁忌症,则降低 SBP 目标至<140 mmHg 也是安全的。[76]Steiner T, Al-Shahi Salman R, Beer R, et al. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Int J Stroke. 2014 Oct;9(7):840-55.http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1111/ijs.12309http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25156220?tool=bestpractice.com 可以持续静脉输注降压药物,例如拉贝洛尔或尼卡地平,并以每 5 分钟一次的频率监测血压。
SBP≥180 mmHg 或 MAP≥130 mmHg 且有证据或怀疑存在颅内压 (ICP) 升高:ICP 监测,间歇性或持续性静脉输注药物降血压,以使脑灌注压维持在 60 至 80 mmHg。
SBP≥180 mmHg 或 MAP≥130 mmHg 且无证据或怀疑存在 ICP 升高:中度降压(例如 MAP 为 110 mmHg 或目标 BP 为 160/90 mmHg),利用间歇性或持续性静脉输注药物来控制血压;应每 15 分钟对患者重复临床检查。
我们暂时不清楚该如何控制血压以降低存在不稳定动脉瘤的蛛网膜下腔出血患者再发出血的风险;但一般认为,将收缩压降低至 160 mmHg 是合理的。[59]Connolly ES Jr, Rabinstein AA, Carhuapoma JR, et al; American Heart Association Stroke Council; Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention; Council on Cardiovascular Nursing; Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Council on Clinical Cardiology. Guidelines for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2012 Jun;43(6):1711-37.http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/43/6/1711.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22556195?tool=bestpractice.com 当患者进行 ICP 监测时,调节血压时需保证脑灌注压 (CPP) 至少为 65 mmHg。
应用抗凝药物患者的治疗
若患者服用华法林时发生出血性卒中,建议迅速纠正国际标准化比值 (INR),并治疗其他凝血障碍。纠正凝血功能低下状态的方法包括:补充缺乏的凝血因子或血小板,以及使用针对特定药物治疗的解毒剂。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com 依度沙班、达那肝素、阿加曲班、水蛭素、重组水蛭素、比伐卢定、糖蛋白 IIb/IIIa 抑制剂、阿司匹林或氯吡格雷没有特异性解毒药。在患者服用这些药物时发生出血性卒中,应立即停药。
对于正在服用华法林并且 INR≥1.5 的患者,初始治疗选择为维生素 K1(维生素 K) 与新鲜冰冻血浆或 4 种因子凝血酶原复合物合用。4 种因子凝血酶原复合物是 2013 年美国食品药品监督管理局 (FDA) 批准上市的新药,用于逆转发生与华法林相关出血患者的 INR。该药能较快地纠正 INR,并且所需静脉输液量显著降低。所有颅内出血的患者都应静脉使用维生素 K,但单独使用维生素 K 治疗不足,并且可能需要 6 至 24 小时才能完全发挥作用。[77]Ansell J, Hirsh J, Hylek E, et al. Pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (8th edition). Chest. 2008 Jun;133(6 suppl):160-98S.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18574265?tool=bestpractice.com 与凝血因子浓缩剂或重组活化凝血因子 VII 相比,新鲜冰冻血浆存在以下缺陷:纠正 INR 速度较慢,需更缓慢静滴,所需的输液量较大。[78]Mayer SA, Brun NC, Begtrup K, et al. Recombinant activated factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med. 2005 Feb 24;352(8):777-85.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa042991http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15728810?tool=bestpractice.com 在输液后应检测患者 INR。4 种因子凝血酶原复合物中含有人源的维生素 K 依赖性凝血因子 II、VII、IX 和 X。在 15-30 分钟后检查 INR,然后在最初 24-48 小时每 6-8 小时检查一次,因为其效果可能出现反弹。可能有必要再次给予凝血酶原复合物,但关于这种做法存在争议,因为这可导致血栓形成并发症。当患者应用华法林治疗不达标(INR<1.5)时,无需处理。
鱼精蛋白是纠正静脉注射普通肝素导致的低凝状态的首选药物。[79]Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, et al. Parenteral anticoagulants: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 suppl):e24-43S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60118-4/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315264?tool=bestpractice.com 鱼精蛋白也可用于纠正低分子肝素 (low molecular weight heparin, LMWH) 导致的低凝状态。在指南中,根据自应用 LMWH 后的时间提供具体的推荐。[79]Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, et al. Parenteral anticoagulants: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest. 2012 Feb;141(2 suppl):e24-43S.https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(12)60118-4/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22315264?tool=bestpractice.com 对鱼过敏、有输精管切除术史和曾注射含有鱼精蛋白的胰岛素的患者在使用鱼精蛋白时,有过敏风险,注射后应对其进行密切观察。
随着直接凝血酶抑制剂和 Xa 因子抑制剂的使用增加,缺乏具有针对性的解毒剂已成为一个主要限制,导致对用于逆转此类抗凝血作用的药物需求增加。根据推测,由于缺乏逆转剂,脑出血患者服用达比加群的预后较差,但一项研究表明,其住院死亡率与服用华法林的患者类似。[80]Alonso A, Bengtson LG, MacLehose RF, et al. Intracranial hemorrhage mortality in atrial fibrillation patients treated with dabigatran or warfarin. Stroke. 2014 Aug;45(8):2286-91.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/strokeaha.114.006016http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24994722?tool=bestpractice.com 事实上,即使与抗凝治疗有关的大出血会导致发病率和死亡率的增加,但此类风险与抗凝药物的类别无关。[81]Siegal DM, Curnutte JT, Connolly SJ, et al. Andexanet alfa for the reversal of factor Xa inhibitor activity. N Engl J Med. 2015 Dec 17;373(25):2413-24.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1510991http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26559317?tool=bestpractice.com
2015 年,FDA 批准 依达赛珠单抗 (idarucizumab)(一种特异性达比加群逆转剂)用作达比加群的逆转剂。依达赛珠单抗 (idarucizumab) 是一种单克隆抗体片段,可结合达比加群;在参与此项研究的 88% 至 90% 的患者中,该药物被证明可快速、完全地逆转达比加群的效果。[82]Pollack CV Jr, Reilly PA, Eikelboom J, et al. Idarucizumab for dabigatran reversal. N Engl J Med. 2015 Aug 6;373(6):511-20.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1502000http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26095746?tool=bestpractice.com
当 INR ≥ 1.5 的接受溶栓治疗(如静脉注射 tPA)的患者发生颅内出血时,首选药物为新鲜冰冻血浆或Ⅳ因子凝血酶原复合物。与 tPA 相关出血的预后较差,且可用于指导相关凝血障碍治疗的数据十分有限。除了 INR 之外,应同时检查患者纤维蛋白原水平,如低于 100 mg/dL,可考虑使用冷凝蛋白质(一种血制品)进行治疗。使用 tPA 后,纤维蛋白原会出现暂时性减少;当低至一定程度时,建议补充至正常水平。考虑到凝血障碍的复杂性,必要时应申请血液科会诊。
当患者存在血小板减少时,可输注血小板,使血液中血小板计数>100,000/μL。虽然目前尚不清楚颅内出血后血小板水平的最低阈值,但在发病后 24 h 内,即出血进展的高峰期,维持血小板计数>100,000/μL 是合理的。尽管脑出血前服用抗血小板药物的患者的死亡率有小幅度地提升,[83]Thompson BB, Bejot Y, Caso V, et al. Prior antiplatelet therapy and outcome following intracerebral hemorrhage: a systematic review. Neurology. 2010 Oct 12;75(15):1333-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20826714?tool=bestpractice.com 目前尚不清楚对于服用抗血小板药物的患者输注血小板能否有效降低超额死亡率,不过对于这类患者,通常不推荐输注血小板治疗。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
抗血小板药物可降低血小板活性,可能导致容易青肿和出血并发症。血小板功能降低与脑出血后早期的血凝块进展和 3 个月的预后较差相关。[83]Thompson BB, Bejot Y, Caso V, et al. Prior antiplatelet therapy and outcome following intracerebral hemorrhage: a systematic review. Neurology. 2010 Oct 12;75(15):1333-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20826714?tool=bestpractice.com[84]Naidech AM, Jovanovic B, Liebling S, et al. Reduced platelet activity is associated with early clot growth and worse 3-month outcome after intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke. 2009 Jul;40(7):2398-401.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/strokeaha.109.550939http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19443791?tool=bestpractice.com 血小板功能检测可有助于我们了解抗血小板药物使用者的血小板聚集情况。然而,关于紧急输注血小板能否纠正血小板功能异常及其对患者临床结局的总体影响这方面的研究,尚未得到一致的结论。[85]Campbell PG, Sen A, Yadla S, et al. Emergency reversal of antiplatelet agents in patients presenting with an intracranial hemorrhage: a clinical review. World Neurosurg. 2010 Aug-Sep;74(2-3):279-85.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21492561?tool=bestpractice.com
服用直接凝血酶抑制剂的患者发生颅内出血时,最佳的治疗方案是什么,这一问题目前尚存争议。专家建议了各种策略,包括紧急血液透析、重组因子 VII 和/或包含因子 VII 的凝血酶原复合物浓缩剂(在美国不可用),但仍未确定在使用这些药物的情况下处理脑出血的最佳方法。
发热和高血糖的治疗
发生脑出血后常常存在发热,尤其是伴有脑室出血时。发热的持续时间与结局较差有关,已被确定为独立的预后因素。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com 一项随机对照试验 (RCT) 表明,在随机分配至接受对乙酰氨基酚既定给药方案的卒中患者中,不管其基线体温如何,结局均无改善。尽管缺乏证据,但对发热的患者进行降温处理似乎是合理的。
一项主要针对缺血性卒中患者的随机对照试验显示,注射胰岛素并不能使患者受益。[86]Gray CS, Hildreth AJ, Sandercock PA, et al. Glucose-potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol. 2007 May;6(5):397-406.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17434094?tool=bestpractice.com[87]den Hertog HM, van der Worp HB, van Gemert HM, et al; PAIS Investigators. The Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) In Stroke (PAIS) trial: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase III trial. Lancet Neurol. 2009 May;8(5):434-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19297248?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,未经治疗的高血糖与脑出血的不良预后独立相关;因此,尽管缺乏控制血糖能改善临床结局的证据,仍推荐及时纠正患者的血糖水平。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com 一项 meta 分析结果表明,在脑损伤患者中强化胰岛素治疗,并不能改善神经系统功能结局、降低死亡率或者减少住院期间并发症的发生。[88]Zafar SN, Iqbal A, Farez MF, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in brain injury: a meta-analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2011 Jul;28(7):1307-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21534731?tool=bestpractice.com
血糖控制
未治疗的高血糖与脑出血的不良预后独立相关;因此,尽管缺乏能够改善结局的证据,还是建议及时纠正血糖。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com 一项主要纳入缺血性脑卒中患者的 RCT 发现,通过输注胰岛素严格控制血糖(范围为 80-110 mg/dL)并未获益。[86]Gray CS, Hildreth AJ, Sandercock PA, et al. Glucose-potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol. 2007 May;6(5):397-406.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17434094?tool=bestpractice.com[87]den Hertog HM, van der Worp HB, van Gemert HM, et al; PAIS Investigators. The Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) In Stroke (PAIS) trial: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase III trial. Lancet Neurol. 2009 May;8(5):434-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19297248?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,一项 meta 分析表明,对颅脑损伤患者进行强化胰岛素治疗,并不能改善神经系统结局、降低死亡率或减少住院并发症。[88]Zafar SN, Iqbal A, Farez MF, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in brain injury: a meta-analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2011 Jul;28(7):1307-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21534731?tool=bestpractice.com 该分析认为,严格血糖控制可能会增加低血糖的发生率,这可能会导致不良结局。为此,应密切监控血糖情况,同时避免高血糖和低血糖的发生。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
深静脉血栓形成 (DVT) 的预防
患有神经系统损伤的危重病患者,如果因瘫痪和长期昏迷造成静脉淤滞增加,则静脉血栓栓塞导致的并发症很常见。[89]Nyquist P, Bautista C, Jichici D, et al. Prophylaxis of venous thrombosis in neurocritical care patients: an evidence-based guideline. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society. Neurocrit Care. 2016 Feb;24(1):47-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26646118?tool=bestpractice.com 与缺血性脑卒中患者相比,出血性卒中患者发生静脉血栓栓塞的风险可能更高。存在脑出血使得确定预防深静脉血栓形成 (DVT) 和/或肺栓塞 (PE) 的最适合方法颇具挑战。针对静脉血栓预防的美国神经重症监护学会 (Neurocritical Care Society) 指南指出,对于脑出血患者,应在住院治疗当天开始使用间歇充气加压设备和/或循序加压弹力袜。[89]Nyquist P, Bautista C, Jichici D, et al. Prophylaxis of venous thrombosis in neurocritical care patients: an evidence-based guideline. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society. Neurocrit Care. 2016 Feb;24(1):47-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26646118?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Lacut K, Bressollette L, Le Gal G, et al. Prevention of venous thrombosis in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurology. 2005 Sep 27;65(6):865-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16186525?tool=bestpractice.com
鼓励患者尽可能早地进行活动;发病 48 h 后,如无持续出血的证据,可考虑使用低剂量普通肝素或低分子肝素进行抗凝治疗。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Nyquist P, Bautista C, Jichici D, et al. Prophylaxis of venous thrombosis in neurocritical care patients: an evidence-based guideline. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society. Neurocrit Care. 2016 Feb;24(1):47-60.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26646118?tool=bestpractice.com[91]Boeer A, Voth E, Henze T, et al. Early heparin therapy in patients with spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1991 May;54(5):466-7.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC488553/pdf/jnnpsyc00503-0082.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1865215?tool=bestpractice.com预防 DVT:低质量的证据显示,应用低剂量的普通肝素或低分子肝素比充气加压装置的预防效果更好。[91]Boeer A, Voth E, Henze T, et al. Early heparin therapy in patients with spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1991 May;54(5):466-7.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC488553/pdf/jnnpsyc00503-0082.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1865215?tool=bestpractice.com低质量的观察性(队列)研究或者受试者<200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。
如果患者出现 DVT 或 PE,则可考虑采用全身性抗凝治疗或放置下腔静脉 (IVC) 滤器,但应权衡风险与获益。距离出血的时间、血肿稳定性、出血原因和患者的临床表现都是制定决策时需要加以考量的重要因素。[54]Hemphill JC 3rd, Greenberg SM, Anderson C, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke. 2015 Jul;46(7):2032-60.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/str.0000000000000069http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26022637?tool=bestpractice.com
康复
由于神经系统损伤,许多患者都会被限制步行活动和运动,因而降低其生活质量。此外,与制动相关的并发症(即 DVT、PE、吸入性肺炎)通常会在卒中后早期出现。康复的目的在于尝试使生存者恢复一个可接受的社会和/或工作生活方式。建议在卒中后早期进行康复治疗。AVERT 试验研究了在卒中发生后 24 小时内开始高剂量、频繁活动方案的获益,但与通常的标准治疗相比,并未发现获益增加。[92]Bernhardt J, Langhorne P, Lindley RI, et al; AVERT Trial Collaboration Group. Efficacy and safety of very early mobilisation within 24 h of stroke onset (AVERT): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015 Jul 4;386(9988):46-55.https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2815%2960690-0/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25892679?tool=bestpractice.com 已经完成了 AVERT III 期试验,但尚未获得试验结果。[93]Neuroscience Trials Australia. A very early rehabilitation trial (AVERT): NCT01846247 (Australian Clinical Trials Registry: 1260600185561). Apr 2015 [internet publication].https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01846247 其他较小型研究表明,在脑内出血发生后 24 至 48 小时内开始康复治疗可改善 3 至 6 个月后随访时的生存和功能性结果。[94]Liu N, Cadilhac DA, Andrew NE, et al. Randomized controlled trial of early rehabilitation after intracerebral hemorrhage stroke: difference in outcomes within 6 months of stroke. Stroke. 2014 Dec;45(12):3502-7.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/strokeaha.114.005661http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25336514?tool=bestpractice.com
此外,大约三分之一的卒中患者会发生失语。言语和语言疗法很关键,能增加功能性交流的程度。在比较具体治疗方案(例如强化度、剂量和持续时间)时,功能性结果的显著差异仍在研究中。已经明确,接受高强度治疗的患者在完成推荐的治疗之前具有较高的退出治疗的发生率。[95]Brady MC, Kelly H, Godwin J, et al. Speech and language therapy for aphasia following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jun 1;(6):CD000425.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000425.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27245310?tool=bestpractice.com