病史
对于任何呈现典型三联征的患者,应怀疑嗜铬细胞瘤:
症状呈阵发性为其典型特征,并且持续时间从几秒到几个小时不等,并且随着时间推移,肿瘤扩大时,病情通常恶化。
其他提示性特征:
询问家族史很关键,因为嗜铬细胞瘤成人患者中高达 35% 有家族遗传性。[2]Mazzaglia PJ. Hereditary pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. J Surg Oncol. 2012 Oct 1;106(5):580-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22648936?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Canu L, Rapizzi E, Zampetti B, et al. Pitfalls in genetic analysis of pheochromocytomas/paragangliomas - case report. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Jul;99(7):2321-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24758185?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Martucci VL, Pacak K. Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: diagnosis, genetics, management, and treatment. Curr Probl Cancer. 2014 Jan-Feb;38(1):7-41.https://www.cpcancer.com/article/S0147-0272(14)00002-6/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24636754?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Neumann HP, Bausch B, McWhinney SR, et al. Germ-line mutations in nonsyndromic pheochromocytoma. N Engl J Med. 2002 May 9;346(19):1459-66.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12000816?tool=bestpractice.com 高风险患者为存在与嗜铬细胞瘤或副神经节瘤相关家族性综合征(例如 2A 或 B 型多发性内分泌腺瘤、Von Hippel-Lindau 病、琥珀酸脱氢酶亚基 B、C、D 基因突变、1 型神经纤维瘤病)的患者或这有嗜铬细胞瘤个人史的患者。继发于嗜铬细胞瘤的内分泌疾病包括库欣综合征和葡萄糖耐量受损或糖尿病。由于该肿瘤产生血管活性肠肽 (vasoactive intestinal peptide, VIP),所以患者可能发生腹泻。一些患者无症状,经超声偶然发现肿瘤,或者因其他原因在腹部检查的过程中发现肿瘤。[26]Sinnott B, Hatipoglu B. Adrenal incidentaloma in pregnancy. Endocrinologist. 2005 Jul/Aug;15(4):205-8.https://journals.lww.com/theendocrinologist/Abstract/2005/07000/Adrenal_Incidentaloma_in_Pregnancy.4.aspx 通过这种方法发现的嗜铬细胞瘤约占 10%。[27]Kudva YC, Young WF Jr, Thompson GB, et al. Adrenal incidentaloma: an important component of the clinical presentation spectrum of benign sporadic adrenal pheochromocytoma. Endocrinologist. 1999 Mar;9(2):77-80.https://journals.lww.com/theendocrinologist/Abstract/1999/03000/Adrenal_Incidentaloma__An_Important_Component_of.2.aspx 通过影像学检查偶然发现的肾上腺嗜铬细胞瘤(肾上腺偶发瘤)逐渐增加,发生率已经接近尸检病例系列研究所报道的 8.7%。[28]Singh PK, Buch HN. Adrenal incidentaloma: evaluation and management. J Clin Pathol. 2008 Nov;61(11):1168-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18955573?tool=bestpractice.com 一项大型研究表明,偶然发现的肾上腺肿块中只有 4%-5% 为嗜铬细胞瘤。[29]Mantero F, Terzolo M, Arnaldi G, et al. A survey on adrenal incidentaloma in Italy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Feb;85(2):637-44.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/85/2/637/2854010http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10690869?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Grumbach MM, Biller BM, Braunstein GD, et al. Management of the clinically inapparent adrenal mass ("incidentaloma"). Ann Intern Med. 2003 Mar 4;138(5):424-9.http://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/716112/management-clinically-inapparent-adrenal-mass-incidentalomahttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12614096?tool=bestpractice.com 推荐对所有存在这些肿块的患者进行生化评估。[30]Grumbach MM, Biller BM, Braunstein GD, et al. Management of the clinically inapparent adrenal mass ("incidentaloma"). Ann Intern Med. 2003 Mar 4;138(5):424-9.http://annals.org/aim/fullarticle/716112/management-clinically-inapparent-adrenal-mass-incidentalomahttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12614096?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Tabarin A, Bardet S, Bertherat J, et al; French Society of Endocrinology Consensus. Exploration and management of adrenal incidentalomas. Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2008 Dec;69(6):487-500.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19022420?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Zeiger MA, Thompson GB, Duh QY, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American Association of Endocrine Surgeons medical guidelines for the management of adrenal incidentalomas: executive summary of recommendations. Endocr Pract. 2009 Jul-Aug;15(5):450-3.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19632968?tool=bestpractice.com
体格检查结果
高血压是体格检查时的主要体征。患者经常表现为急进性高血压或多种药物难治的高血压。事实上,大约 48% 的高血压病例是阵发性或不稳定的。[33]Bravo EL, Tagle R. Pheochromocytoma: state-of-the-art and future prospects. Endocr Rev. 2003 Aug;24(4):539-53.https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/24/4/539/2424567http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12920154?tool=bestpractice.com 高血压危象可由药物、静脉注射对比剂、手术甚至运动诱发。检查高血压病继发的表现也是非常重要的,例如高血压视网膜病、心肌病或心律失常。由容量受限引起的体位性低血压可能也是其特点之一。与嗜铬细胞瘤有关的其他体征包括腹部肿块、心动过速、苍白或震颤。
实验室评估
表现为经典三联征的所有患者无论是否有高血压均应接受检查。
对于任何存在导致易发生嗜铬细胞瘤的家族性疾病(例如 2 型多发性内分泌腺瘤)的患者,均应进行检查。
关于确定性诊断检查,仍然未达成共识。根据嗜铬细胞瘤的验前概率选择生化检测,生物化学证实后应通过放射学检查定位肿瘤。[34]Kunz PL, Reidy-Lagunes D, Anthony LB, et al; North American Neuroendocrine Tumor Society. Consensus guidelines for the management and treatment of neuroendocrine tumors. Pancreas. 2013 May;42(4):557-77.https://journals.lww.com/pancreasjournal/fulltext/2013/05000/Consensus_Guidelines_for_the_Management_and.2.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23591432?tool=bestpractice.com
对于验前概率低的患者(例如有高血压但其他体征或症状极少或不存在),检测 24 小时尿儿茶酚胺、变肾上腺素和去甲变肾上腺素为首选的初始评估方法。因为这些检测的特异性高,所以是有帮助的。[35]Sawka AM, Jaeschke R, Singh RJ, et al. A comparison of biochemical tests for pheochromocytoma: measurement of fractionated plasma metanephrines compared with the combination of 24-hour urinary metanephrines and catecholamines. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Feb;88(2):553-8.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/88/2/553/2845079http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12574179?tool=bestpractice.com
发生嗜铬细胞瘤概率高(验前概率高)的患者(例如有家族性综合征或嗜铬细胞瘤家族史的患者),应首选高敏感性检测,即血清肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素检测。[36]Lenders JW, Pacak K, Walther MM, et al. Biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma: which test is best? JAMA. 2002 Mar 20;287(11):1427-34.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/194752http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11903030?tool=bestpractice.com 血儿茶酚胺检测亦可用于疑似嗜铬细胞瘤患者的初始评估,但在多种形式的应激情况下可出现较高的假阳性率。[37]Eisenhofer G, Golstein DS, Walther MM, et al. Biochemical diagnosis of pheochromocytoma: how to distinguish true- from false-positive test results. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Jun;88(6):2656-66.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/88/6/2656/2845457http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12788870?tool=bestpractice.com 与 2 型多发性内分泌腺瘤和 1 型神经纤维瘤相关的嗜铬细胞瘤通常分泌肾上腺素。与之不同,与 VHL 和 SDHB 相关的嗜铬细胞瘤分泌去甲肾上腺素。
通过尿液或血液检测来识别嗜铬细胞瘤的假阳性可能性高时,例如急性酒精戒断、肾排泄功能低下或患者正服用肼苯哒嗪或米诺地尔时,可行可乐定抑制试验。在这种情况下,依据服用可乐定后 3 小时时对血浆儿茶酚胺没有抑制,则可确诊嗜铬细胞瘤。[38]Lenders JW, Duh QY, Eisenhofer G, et al; Endocrine Society. Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Jun;99(6):1915-42.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/99/6/1915/2537399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24893135?tool=bestpractice.com
嗜铬粒蛋白 A 是一种酸性单体蛋白,随着儿茶酚胺释放被储存和分泌。据报道,依据该指标识别嗜铬细胞瘤的敏感度为 83%,特异度为 96%。它可作为术前筛查工具,用于血浆和尿液变肾上腺素及去甲变肾上腺素水平正常的患者,并可用于识别术后复发。[39]Grossrubatscher E, Dalino P, Vignati F, et al. The role of chromogranin A in the management of patients with pheochromocytoma. Clin Endocrinol. 2006 Sep;65(3):287-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16918946?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Plouin PF, Amar L, Dekkers OM, et al; Guideline Working Group. European Society of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline for long-term follow-up of patients operated on for a phaeochromocytoma or a paraganglioma. Eur J Endocrinol. 2016 May;174(5):G1-10.http://www.eje-online.org/content/174/5/G1.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27048283?tool=bestpractice.com
基因检测
对所有嗜铬细胞瘤患者都应进行基因检测,以识别潜在遗传性肿瘤疾病,这些肿瘤需要更详尽的评估和随访。[2]Mazzaglia PJ. Hereditary pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. J Surg Oncol. 2012 Oct 1;106(5):580-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22648936?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Lenders JW, Duh QY, Eisenhofer G, et al; Endocrine Society. Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Jun;99(6):1915-42.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/99/6/1915/2537399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24893135?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Plouin PF, Amar L, Dekkers OM, et al; Guideline Working Group. European Society of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline for long-term follow-up of patients operated on for a phaeochromocytoma or a paraganglioma. Eur J Endocrinol. 2016 May;174(5):G1-10.http://www.eje-online.org/content/174/5/G1.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27048283?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Bornstein SR, Gimenez-Roqueplo AP. Genetic testing in pheochromocytoma: increasing importance for clinical decision making. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2006 Aug;1073:94-103.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17102076?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Rana HQ, Rainville IR, Vaidya A. Genetic testing in the clinical care of patients with pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2014 Jun;21(3):166-76.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24739310?tool=bestpractice.com 基因检测前需要考虑的重要因素包括儿茶酚胺分泌的生化检测结果、患者年龄、相关家族史和遗传咨询情况。[34]Kunz PL, Reidy-Lagunes D, Anthony LB, et al; North American Neuroendocrine Tumor Society. Consensus guidelines for the management and treatment of neuroendocrine tumors. Pancreas. 2013 May;42(4):557-77.https://journals.lww.com/pancreasjournal/fulltext/2013/05000/Consensus_Guidelines_for_the_Management_and.2.aspxhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23591432?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Hampel H, Bennett RL, Buchanan A, et al. A practice guideline from the American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics and the National Society of Genetic Counselors: referral indications for cancer predisposition assessment. Genet Med. 2015 Jan;17(1):70-87.https://www.nature.com/articles/gim2014147http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25394175?tool=bestpractice.com
后续影像学检查
只有生化证据确定后,才可开始影像学检查进行定位,例如腹部和盆腔 CT 或 MRI,因为无功能的肾上腺偶发肿瘤的发生率高。[27]Kudva YC, Young WF Jr, Thompson GB, et al. Adrenal incidentaloma: an important component of the clinical presentation spectrum of benign sporadic adrenal pheochromocytoma. Endocrinologist. 1999 Mar;9(2):77-80.https://journals.lww.com/theendocrinologist/Abstract/1999/03000/Adrenal_Incidentaloma__An_Important_Component_of.2.aspx 考虑到腹部 CT 空间分辨率的优势,指南推荐将 CT 而非 MRI 作为首选影像学检查。[38]Lenders JW, Duh QY, Eisenhofer G, et al; Endocrine Society. Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Jun;99(6):1915-42.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/99/6/1915/2537399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24893135?tool=bestpractice.com 嗜铬细胞瘤在 CT 成像中表现为不均匀肿块,经常显示中心密度低,表示有出血或坏死。相比于肝脏,在磁共振 T2 加权成像上一般显示为高信号。
123 I-间碘苄胍 (metaiodobenzylguanidine, MIBG) 闪烁显像仅限用于识别肾上腺外疾病和家族性嗜铬细胞瘤以及转移性或复发性疾病。如果腹部和骨盆的 MRI 或 CT 显示阴性结果,推荐将其用于嗜铬细胞瘤定位。指南推荐将 123 I MIBG成像用于与巨大嗜铬细胞瘤相关的转移性疾病发病风险高的患者,疾病复发的患者,或者计划使用 131 I MIBG 行放射治疗的患者。[38]Lenders JW, Duh QY, Eisenhofer G, et al; Endocrine Society. Pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Jun;99(6):1915-42.https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/99/6/1915/2537399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24893135?tool=bestpractice.com
正电子发射计算机断层显像 (positron emission tomography, PET) 功能成像已被提倡并用于评估嗜铬细胞肿瘤的活动性。[44]Havekes B, King K, Lai EW, et al. New imaging approaches to phaeochromocytomas and paragangliomas. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2010 Feb;72(2):137-45.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2009.03648.xhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19508681?tool=bestpractice.com 18F-氟多巴胺 (18F-fluorodopamine, 18F-FDA)、18-F 6-氟-L多巴 (18F-fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine, 18F-FDOPA) 和18F-脱氧葡萄糖 (18F-fluoro-2 deoxy-D-glucose, 18F-FDG) 等化合物已经用于 PET 来帮助辨别良性与恶性神经内分泌肿瘤。18F-FDG PET 成像在诊断转移性肿瘤方面优于 I-131 MIBF 成像,是疑似转移性疾病术前和术后的首选成像方法。[40]Plouin PF, Amar L, Dekkers OM, et al; Guideline Working Group. European Society of Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline for long-term follow-up of patients operated on for a phaeochromocytoma or a paraganglioma. Eur J Endocrinol. 2016 May;174(5):G1-10.http://www.eje-online.org/content/174/5/G1.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27048283?tool=bestpractice.com