任何肺炎患者均依据疾病的严重程度、合并症、之前的住院史、社区耐药性细菌等情况进行初始治疗。[17]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com
应对患者的水合状态、换气是否充分和血流动力学稳定性进行评估。如果需要,应即刻行氧疗和机械通气。 [
]What are the effects of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation with supplemental oxygen, when compared with Venturi mask oxygen delivery, in adults with pneumonia?http://cochraneclinicalanswers.com/doi/10.1002/cca.73/full显示答案
抗生素治疗
非典型细菌性肺炎的病原体对β-内酰胺类抗生素治疗无反应,通常需要使用大环内酯类、四环素或氟喹诺酮类药物进行治疗。对于非复杂性社区获得性肺炎,现行肺炎治疗指南推荐经验性使用大环内酯类药物或多西环素,以确保覆盖非典型微生物。[17]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009;64(suppl 3):iii1-iiii55.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Eliakim-Raz N, Robenshtok E, Shefet D, et al. Empiric antibiotic coverage of atypical pathogens for community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;(9):CD004418.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004418.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22972070?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Sligl WI, Asadi L, Eurich DT, et al. Macrolides and mortality in critically ill patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2014;42:420-432.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24158175?tool=bestpractice.com [
]In hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia, is there randomized controlled trial evidence to support the use of empiric atypical antibiotic coverage over typical antibiotic coverage?http://cochraneclinicalanswers.com/doi/10.1002/cca.306/full显示答案 对于比较严重的病例,也建议覆盖非典型微生物。[17]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009;64(suppl 3):iii1-iiii55.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com在经验抗生素治疗方案中,覆盖非典型病原体的建议存在争议;[40]Postma DF, van Werkhoven CH, Oosterheert JJ. Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization: rational decision making and interpretation of guidelines. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2017;23:204-210.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28198726?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Naucler P, Strålin K. Routine atypical antibiotic coverage is not necessary in hospitalised patients with non-severe community-acquired pneumonia. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2016;48:224-225.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27374746?tool=bestpractice.com[42]File TM Jr, Marrie TJ. Does empiric therapy for atypical pathogens improve outcomes for patients with CAP? Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2013;27:99-114.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23398868?tool=bestpractice.com然而,目前的数据支持该建议。[43]File TM Jr, Eckburg PB, Talbot GH, et al. Macrolide therapy for community-acquired pneumonia due to atypical pathogens: outcome assessment at an early time point. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2017;50:247-251.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28599867?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Eljaaly K, Alshehri S, Aljabri A, et al. Clinical failure with and without empiric atypical bacteria coverage in hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2017;17:385.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5457549/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28576117?tool=bestpractice.com通常不建议对儿童或妊娠女性使用四环素类药物和氟喹诺酮类药物,但在使用此类药物益处大于风险且无其他合适的治疗选择的情况下,可在此类患者中考虑使用。
当使用可靠的方法明确了肺炎的具体致病菌,应针对相应的病原体行抗生素治疗。[17]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,在最近几年里,对大环内酯类耐药的肺炎支原体病例在亚洲的发生率逐渐增加(高达 80%)[45]Liu Y, Ye X, Zhang H, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates and molecular analysis of macrolide-resistant strains from Shanghai, China. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:2160-2162.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2681541/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19273684?tool=bestpractice.com然而此发生率在中东较低,为 30%,[46]Averbuch D, Hidalgo-Grass C, Moses AE, et al. Macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Israel, 2010. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:1079-1082.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3358208/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21749775?tool=bestpractice.com欧洲为 10%,[47]Peuchant O, Ménard A, Renaudin H, et al. Increased macrolide resistance of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in France directly detected in clinical specimens by real-time PCR and melting curve analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64:52-58.http://jac.oxfordjournals.org/content/64/1/52.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19429926?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Spuesens EB, Meijer A, Bierschenk D, et al. Macrolide resistance determination and molecular typing of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory specimens collected between 1997 and 2008 in the Netherlands. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:1999-2004.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22495561?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Uldum SA, Bangsborg JM, Gahrn-Hansen B, et al. Epidemic of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in Denmark, 2010 and 2011. Euro Surveill. 2012;17:pii:20073.http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ViewArticle.aspx?ArticleId=20073http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22321137?tool=bestpractice.com美国为10%。[50]Wolff BJ, Thacker WL, Schwartz SB, et al. Detection of macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae by real-time PCR and high-resolution melt analysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:3542-3549.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2565909/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18644962?tool=bestpractice.com如果诊断为嗜肺军团菌,应当使用大环内酯类或喹诺酮类药物,对其中任何一种药物均无优选选择。[51]Gershengorn HB, Keene A, Dzierba AL, et al. The association of antibiotic
treatment regimen and hospital mortality in patients hospitalized with Legionella
pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:e66-79.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/60/11/e66.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25722195?tool=bestpractice.com
住院患者的门诊医疗保健服务
对疾病的严重程度进行评分有助于确定患者是在门诊接受治疗、需要住院治疗或收入ICU治疗。最常使用肺炎严重程度指数 (Pneumonia Severity Index, PSI) 进行评估。[52]Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:243-250.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199701233360402#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8995086?tool=bestpractice.comPSI也被称为肺炎患者治疗效果研究团队模型 (Pneumonia Patient Outcomes Research Team Model),已重新定位为一种在线工具。需要评估20个因素,包括年龄、呼吸频率、脉搏、血压和体温,总评分为各项评分之和。CURB-65是由英国胸科学会制定的另一种严重程度评分系统。[37]Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al; Pneumonia Guidelines Committee of the BTS Standards of Care Committee. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009;64(suppl 3):iii1-iiii55.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/64/Suppl_3/iii1.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19783532?tool=bestpractice.com
满足下列一项以上条件的应住院治疗:意识不清或定向力差、尿毒症[尿素>45 mmol/L (>126 mg/dL)]、呼吸频率> 29次/分钟、低血压(收缩压<90 mmHg,舒张压<60 mmHg)以及年龄>65岁。满足三项及以上条件的患者应考虑收入ICU治疗。[17]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44 Suppl 2:S27-72.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/44/Supplement_2/S27.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com在明确患者是否需要收入ICU治疗和住院治疗方面,与PSI和CURB-65评分系统相比,新评分系统可能有一些优势。[53]Yandiola PP, Capelastegui A, Quintana J, et al. Prospective comparison of severity scores for predicting clinically relevant outcomes for patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest. 2009;135:1572-1579.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19141524?tool=bestpractice.com[54]España PP, Capelastegui A, Gorordo I, et al. Development and validation of a clinical prediction rule for severe community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2006;174:1249-1256.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16973986?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Charles PG, Wolfe R, Whitby M, et al; Australian Community-Acquired Pneumonia Study Collaboration. SMART-COP: a tool for predicting the need for intensive respiratory or vasopressor support in community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:375-384.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18558884?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Ewig S, Woodhead M, Torres A. Towards a sensible comprehension of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37:214-223.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21080155?tool=bestpractice.com两项研究表明,血氧饱和度低于92%表明病情较严重且有不良反应,因此需要入院治疗。[55]Charles PG, Wolfe R, Whitby M, et al; Australian Community-Acquired Pneumonia Study Collaboration. SMART-COP: a tool for predicting the need for intensive respiratory or vasopressor support in community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:375-384.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18558884?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Majumdar SR, Eurich DT, Gamble JM, et al. Oxygen saturations less than 92% are associated with major adverse events in outpatients with pneumonia: a population-based cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:325-331.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/52/3/325.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21217179?tool=bestpractice.com
皮质类固醇的作用
有些研究提示,皮质类固醇治疗可能改善社区获得性肺炎患者的结局。[58]Blum CA, Nigro N, Briel M, et al. Adjunct prednisone therapy for patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;385:1511-1518.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25608756?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Torres A, Sibila O, Ferrer M, et al. Effect of corticosteroids on treatment failure among hospitalized patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia and high inflammatory response: a randomized
clinical trial. JAMA. 2015;313:677-686.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=2110967http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25688779?tool=bestpractice.com这种方法有争议,但皮质类固醇可能应当用于住院或入住 ICU 的重度疾病患者。[60]Horita N, Otsuka T, Haranaga S, et al. Adjunctive systemic corticosteroids for hospitalized community-acquired pneumonia: systematic review and meta-analysis 2015 update. Sci Rep. 2015;5:14061.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4571641/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26374694?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Baskar V, Sum CF, Lim SC. Prednisone for community-acquired pneumonia: not yet
time. Lancet. 2015;386:431.http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2815%2961445-3/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26251390?tool=bestpractice.com[62]Annane D. Corticosteroids and pneumonia: time to change practice. Lancet. 2015;385:1484-1485.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25608755?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Wunderink RG. Corticosteroids for severe community-acquired pneumonia: not for
everyone. JAMA. 2015;313:673-674.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25688777?tool=bestpractice.com来自日本的证据提示,在重度肺炎支原体感染中,皮质类固醇应当作为患者治疗的一部分,但没有对照研究支持这种方法。[64]Miyashita N, Kawai Y, Inamura N, et al. Setting a standard for the initiation of steroid therapy in refractory or severe Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia in adolescents and adults. J Infect Chemother. 2015;21:153-160.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25533771?tool=bestpractice.com