越来越多的证据表明,胰岛素抵抗是连接代谢综合征不同组成的主要缺陷,尽管这一相关性的强度在不同人群之间、甚至不同人群中存在差异。
胰岛素抵抗是一种在胰岛素作用中的生理性改变,表现为对胰岛素介导的葡萄糖代谢的抵抗。[13]Reaven G. Metabolic syndrome: pathophysiology and implications for management of cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106:286-288.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12119239?tool=bestpractice.com胰岛素抵抗的人群具有受损的葡萄糖代谢或耐量,表现为对葡萄糖负荷的异常反应,空腹血糖水平升高和胰岛素介导的葡萄糖清除降低可提示这一状态。这一表型主要出现在超重或肥胖人群中,以及在那些久坐生活方式和致动脉粥样硬化性饮食的人群中。[4]Cornier MA, Dabelea D, Hernandez TL, et al. The metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2008;29:777-822.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18971485?tool=bestpractice.com代谢综合征中腹内脂肪的特点为游离脂肪酸的增加。在胰岛素抵抗状态下,胰岛素无法抑制游离脂肪酸从储存的脂肪组织中动员(脂解作用)。这就导致了更高的血浆游离脂肪酸浓度,损伤胰岛β细胞分泌胰岛素,抑制胰岛素刺激下的葡萄糖摄取,尤其在肌肉中。[4]Cornier MA, Dabelea D, Hernandez TL, et al. The metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2008;29:777-822.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18971485?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Langin D. Diabetes, insulin secretion, and the pancreatic beta-cell mitochondrion. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1772-1774.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11742055?tool=bestpractice.com
在骨骼肌肉中,甘油三酯蓄积量的增加会损伤葡萄糖转运体 GLUT-4 的易位,导致胰岛素刺激下的葡萄糖摄取的抵抗。[18]Shulman GI. Cellular mechanisms of insulin resistance. J Clin Invest. 2000;106:171-176.http://www.jci.org/articles/view/10583http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10903330?tool=bestpractice.com而且,肝脏中的高通量游离脂肪酸增加了甘油三酯的储存和合成,通过 VLDL-C 分泌。[19]Lewis GF, Steiner G. Acute effects of insulin in the control of VLDL production in humans: implications for the insulin-resistant state. Diabetes Care. 1996;19:390-393.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8729170?tool=bestpractice.com高甘油三酯血症与低 HDL-C 水平相关,是因为胆固醇脂转运蛋白 (cholesteryl ester transfer protein, CETP) 的作用。CETP 是调节甘油三酯转运的关键酶,甘油三酯作为胆固醇酯的交换,从富含甘油三酯的脂蛋白转运至 HDL 和 LDL 颗粒。在胰岛素抵抗状态下,CETP 产生小的、富含甘油三酯的 HDL-C 颗粒,这些颗粒容易被肝脂肪酶分解,因此被肾脏清除。胰岛素抵抗也常表现为小而密集的LDL-C颗粒,这一颗粒具有高度的致动脉粥样硬化性。[4]Cornier MA, Dabelea D, Hernandez TL, et al. The metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2008;29:777-822.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18971485?tool=bestpractice.com代谢综合征与 CETP 质量的增加有关(尤其在男性中),这一相关性可能可以解释 HDL-C 颗粒和 LDL-C颗粒直径的减少。[20]Sandhofer A, Kaser S, Ritsch A, et al. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein in metabolic syndrome. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006;14:812-818.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1038/oby.2006.94/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16855190?tool=bestpractice.com
在脂质代谢中另一种重要的酶是脂蛋白脂肪酶 (lipoprotein lipase, LPL),其在不同组织间分割脂蛋白源性的游离脂肪酸中起重要作用。来自人类研究和动物模型试验的证据均表明,胰岛素抵抗与骨骼肌中 LPL 的过度表达、以及肝脏和脂肪组织中 LPL 的活性降低有关。[21]Wang H, Knaub LA, Jensen DR, et al. Skeletal muscle-specific deletion of lipoprotein lipase enhances insulin signaling in skeletal muscle but causes insulin resistance in liver and other tissues. Diabetes. 2009;58:116-124.http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/58/1/116.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18952837?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Preiss-Landl K, Zimmermann R, Hammerle G, et al. Lipoprotein lipase: the regulation of tissue specific expression and its role in lipid and energy metabolism. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2002;13:471-481.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12352010?tool=bestpractice.com小鼠骨骼肌中敲除 LPL 后能够减少脂质的储存,增加胰岛素敏感性,但却增加了肝脏和脂肪组织中的胰岛素抵抗。[21]Wang H, Knaub LA, Jensen DR, et al. Skeletal muscle-specific deletion of lipoprotein lipase enhances insulin signaling in skeletal muscle but causes insulin resistance in liver and other tissues. Diabetes. 2009;58:116-124.http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/58/1/116.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18952837?tool=bestpractice.com
胰岛素抵抗和代偿性高胰岛素血症与高血压密切相关。可能的发病机制包括肾脏钠的再吸收增加、胰岛素升压(通过增加交感神经流)和降压(通过血管舒张)作用的失衡、游离脂肪酸的血管收缩作用、交感神经系统的激活以及在肥胖人群中发现的内皮素 1 的增加和一氧化氮的降低。[4]Cornier MA, Dabelea D, Hernandez TL, et al. The metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2008;29:777-822.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18971485?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP, Athyros VG, et al. The role of renin-angiotensin system inhibition in the treatment of hypertension in metabolic syndrome: are all the angiotensin receptor blockers equal? Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2007;11:191-205.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17227234?tool=bestpractice.com另一个将肥胖与高血压相关联的可能机制是肥胖患者中具有高水平的脂肪细胞因子瘦素,同时存在瘦素抵抗。[23]Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP, Athyros VG, et al. The role of renin-angiotensin system inhibition in the treatment of hypertension in metabolic syndrome: are all the angiotensin receptor blockers equal? Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2007;11:191-205.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17227234?tool=bestpractice.com瘦素影响下丘脑的中央回路,因此抑制进食并刺激能量消耗。增加摄入食物和胰岛素抵抗被发现大幅度增加组织瘦素抵抗,快速提高血浆瘦素水平,这一状态与人群心血管风险独立相关。[24]Koerner A, Kratzsch J, Kiess W. Adipocytokines: leptin - the classical, resistin - the controversical, adiponectin - the promising, and more to come. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;19:525-546.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16311215?tool=bestpractice.com代谢综合征患者的高血压与高抵抗素水平和低脂联素水平有关,其中脂联素发挥抗动脉粥样硬化和提高胰岛素敏感性的作用。[25]Papadopoulos DP, Perrea D, Thomopoulos C, et al. Masked hypertension and atherogenesis: the impact on adiponectin and resistin plasma levels. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2009;11:61-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19222669?tool=bestpractice.com
也认为代谢综合征是一种促炎和促血栓的状态。[15]Grundy SM, Hansen B, Smith SC Jr, et al. Clinical management of metabolic syndrome: report of the American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/American Diabetes Association conference on scientific issues related to management. Circulation. 2004;109:551-556.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/109/4/551.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14757684?tool=bestpractice.com它与高 CRP 水平相关。[26]Deepa R, Velmurugan K, Arvind K, et al. Serum levels of interleukin 6, C-reactive protein, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 in relation to insulin resistance and glucose intolerance: the Chennai Urban Rural Epidemiology Study (CURES). Metabolism. 2006;55:1232-1238.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16919544?tool=bestpractice.com 也与由脂肪细胞分泌的细胞因子增加(脂肪因子如瘦素、抵抗素、TNF-α和白介素-6、10、18)和脂联素水平的降低有关。[27]Guerre-Millo M. Adipose tissue and adipokines: for better or worse. Diabetes Metab. 2004;30:13-19.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15029093?tool=bestpractice.com[28]Inadera H. The usefulness of circulating adipokine levels for the assessment of obesity-related health problems. Int J Med Sci. 2008;5:248-262.http://www.medsci.org/v05p0248.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18773088?tool=bestpractice.com和健康对照相比,也与更高水平的纤维蛋白原、同型半胱氨酸和纤溶酶原激活物 1的浓度有关。[13]Reaven G. Metabolic syndrome: pathophysiology and implications for management of cardiovascular disease. Circulation. 2002;106:286-288.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12119239?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Kakafika AI, Liberopoulos EN, Karagiannis A, et al. Dyslipidaemia, hypercoagulability and the metabolic syndrome. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 2006;4:175-183.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16842135?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Bellia C, Bivona G, Scazzone C, et al. Association between homocysteinemia and metabolic syndrome in patients with cardiovascular disease. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2007;3:999-1001.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2387296/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18516267?tool=bestpractice.com