确诊为高血压的患者大多数无症状;因此,筛查是必不可少的。通常通过病史,体检和常规实验室检查来评估患者是否患病。诊断的 3 个宗旨为:
评估危险因素
发现可确认的病因
检测目标器官损伤,包括心血管疾病的证据。
临床评估
病史可以引出高血压或冠状动脉疾病危险因素的家族史。 评估整体心脏风险负担是非常重要的。[2]Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018 Sep 1;39(33):3021-104.https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/39/33/3021/5079119http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30165516?tool=bestpractice.com 考虑病因时,发病年龄具有很大的价值,随着年龄的增加继发性病因的比例会降低。原发性高血压风险增加的患者包括 60 岁以上人群、糖尿病患者或黑人血统人群。[4]Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, et al. Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. Lancet. 1998 Jun 13;351(9118):1755-62.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9635947?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Bjornholt JV, Erikssen G, Kjeldsen SE, et al. Fasting blood glucose is independently associated with resting and exercising blood pressures and development of elevated blood pressures. J Hypertens. 2003 Jul;21(7):1383-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12817188?tool=bestpractice.com 应对于酒精摄入过量或者缺乏运动加以记录。应记录完整的用药史,包括筛查口服避孕药、非甾体抗炎药 (NSAID)、拟交感神经药或草药的使用情况。大多数患者没有症状,但应注意筛查甲状腺功能亢进、甲状腺功能低下或儿茶酚胺增加(例如心动过速、体重减轻、多汗或心悸)或靶器官的损害(例如气短、胸痛或感觉/运动障碍)等临床症状。头痛或视力改变并不常见。
体格检查应包括:[2]Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018 Sep 1;39(33):3021-104.https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/39/33/3021/5079119http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30165516?tool=bestpractice.com[5]Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 May 15;71(19):e127-248.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109717415191?via%3Dihubhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29146535?tool=bestpractice.com
血压:患者应至少静坐 5 分钟,保持双足在地板上且手臂支撑在与心脏相同的水平上。在检查前 30 分钟内避免摄入咖啡因、吸烟和运动。检查时,应使用尺寸合适的袖带,并且患者的手臂应得到支撑(例如静置于桌上)。袖带气囊应至少围住手臂的 80%,宽度应至少为臂围的 40%。初诊时,应同时记录两个手臂的血压值,并将血压读数较高的手臂作为后续就诊的测量手臂。应在两个或两个以上不同场合进行两次或两次以上的测量,并记录下平均值。[1]National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Aug 2004 [internet publication].http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/guidelines/jnc7full.pdf[5]Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 May 15;71(19):e127-248.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109717415191?via%3Dihubhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29146535?tool=bestpractice.com应对对侧手臂进行检定。高血压前期读数是 120-139/80-89 mmHg。[1]National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on the Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Aug 2004 [internet publication].http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/files/docs/guidelines/jnc7full.pdf 在成人中,血压≥140/90 mmHg 即为高血压。[3]James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA. 2014 Feb 5;311(5):507-20.http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1791497http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24352797?tool=bestpractice.com
检查眼底视神经
通过身高和体重计算 BMI
对可能存在于颈动脉、腹部或股动脉的杂音进行听诊。
甲状腺触诊
检查心脏和肺部
检查腹部有无肾脏增大,肿块,扩张的膀胱,或异常的主动脉搏动
触诊下肢有无水肿和脉搏
神经系统评估。
体检可以发现与未治疗高血压相关的终末器官损伤:例如,视网膜病变、血管杂音、充血性心力衰竭的体征、腹主动脉瘤迹象(搏动性包块/杂音)、左室扩大(最大搏动点的移位)或神经系统功能缺损。股动脉搏动缺失提示主动脉缩窄。腹部杂音可能提示腹主动脉瘤或肾动脉狭窄。有时,患者可能有内分泌失调疾病的特征,例如库欣病(满月脸、向心性肥胖、皮纹)、肢端肥大症(肢端肥大)、甲状腺功能亢进症(甲状腺肿大、眼球突出、胫前黏液性水肿)或甲状腺功能减退症(皮肤干燥、深腱反射延迟),这些都表明存在导致高血压的继发性病因。
如果在诊室中的血压 (BP) 读数超过临床环境之外的读数,则怀疑是白大衣 HTN。动态血压监测 (Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring, ABPM) 可能对疑似白大衣高血压患者有所帮助,在发生明显耐药性或偶发性高血压时也有帮助。家庭血压监测 (Home blood pressure monitoring, HBPM) 对于高血压的初步诊断和长期随访有帮助。[47]Stergiou GS, Bliziotis IA. Home blood pressure monitoring in the diagnosis and treatment of hypertension: a systematic review. Am J Hypertens. 2011 Feb;24(2):123-34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20940712?tool=bestpractice.com 美国预防服务工作组 (US Preventive Services Task Force) 建议在 HTN 诊断之前就进行诊室外 BP 测量;ABPM 是首选方法,家庭 BP 监测 (HBPM) 是可接受的替代方法。[48]US Preventive Services Task Force. High blood pressure in adults: screening. Oct 2015 [internet publication].http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/high-blood-pressure-in-adults-screening 对于通过 ABPM 监测的 HTN 定义尚未达成普遍共识,但欧洲指导方针建议的日间 ABPM 或家庭 BP 临界值为 135/85 mmHg。[2]Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018 Sep 1;39(33):3021-104.https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/39/33/3021/5079119http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30165516?tool=bestpractice.com 美国心脏病学会/美国心脏协会 (ACC/AHA) 也建议进行诊室外血压测量以确诊高血压。ACC/AHA 提供了诊室 BP、家庭 BP、日间 ABPM、夜间 ABPM 和 24 小时 ABPM 的相应血压数值。[5]Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 May 15;71(19):e127-248.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109717415191?via%3Dihubhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29146535?tool=bestpractice.com 例如诊室 BP 测量值 130/80 mmHg,与之对应的家庭 BP 值为 130/80 mmHg、日间 ABPM 值为 130 mmHg、夜间ABPM 值为 110/65 mmHg,以及 24 小时ABPM 值 125/75 mmHg。ACC/AHA: corresponding values of systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure for clinic, home blood pressure monitoring, daytime, nighttime, and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring measurements 通常听诊设备(例如水银、无液血压计)通常对 HBPM 无帮助,因为很少有患者能掌握带此设备的血压测量的所需技能。应改用自动验证的设备。
如果在诊室外的血压 (BP) 读数超过临床环境之外的读数,则怀疑是隐蔽性高血压。诊室 BP 升高 (120-129/<80 mmHg) 但未达到高血压标准的成人患者,应通过 ABPM 或 HBPM 合理筛查隐蔽性高血压。[5]Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 May 15;71(19):e127-248.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109717415191?via%3Dihubhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29146535?tool=bestpractice.com
门诊自动血压测量 (Automated office blood pressure, AOBP) 是另一个可选的检测方式,其设计目的是更准确地测量血压。[49]Muntner P, Shimbo D, Carey RM, et al. Measurement of blood pressure in humans: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Hypertension. 2019 Mar 4 [Epub ahead of print].https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/HYP.0000000000000087http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30827125?tool=bestpractice.com 患者单独在一个安静的房间内,坐位,双腿不交叉,背部有支撑,手臂支撑在与心脏相同的水平上,多次测量。在短时间内测量 3 至 6 次(具体取决于所使用的设备),然后计算平均血压。[50]Cloutier L, Daskalopoulou SS, Padwal RS, et al. A new algorithm for the diagnosis of hypertension in Canada. Can J Cardiol. 2015 May;31(5):620-30.http://www.onlinecjc.ca/article/S0828-282X(15)00128-2/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25828374?tool=bestpractice.com 门诊自动血压测量比用于研究的血压测量约低 5mmHg,比常规门诊血压测量低 10-15mmHg。[51]Myers MG. A Short History of Automated Office Blood Pressure - 15 Years to SPRINT. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2016 Aug;18(8):721-4.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jch.12820http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27038200?tool=bestpractice.com 使用 AOBP 时,高血压定义为 ≥135/85 mmHg。
检查
常规代谢全项和血脂水平是必需检查项目。根据肾脏疾病饮食调整 (Modification of Diet in Renal Disease, MDRD) 配方计算得到肾小球滤过率[52]Cuspidi C. Cardio-renal organ damage and cardiovascular outcomes in hypertension. J Hypertens. 2009 Apr;27(4):702-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19300106?tool=bestpractice.com
用同位素稀释质谱法 (IDMS) 和肾脏病饮食改良 (MDRD) 简化公式估算肾小球滤过率
或者慢性肾脏病流行病学合作研究公式 (CKD-EPI) 进行计算。用 CKD-EPI 公式估算 GFR
特别地,应当注意代谢综合征(高血糖症,血脂异常)或高尿酸血症的特征。还建议检查血红蛋白及尿常规加白蛋白排泄量,可能有助于识别高血压的原因。应进行 ECG 检查。 通常不会对继发性高血压的原因进行更广泛的检查,除非很难控制血压或临床或常规实验室数据显示出可识别的继发性原因,比如不明原因低钾血症或肾功能不全的体征。[2]Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018 Sep 1;39(33):3021-104.https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/39/33/3021/5079119http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30165516?tool=bestpractice.com[5]Whelton PK, Carey RM, Aronow WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018 May 15;71(19):e127-248.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735109717415191?via%3Dihubhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29146535?tool=bestpractice.com 超声心动图和颈动脉多普勒可能有预测预后的价值,但是除非指南推荐,否则不推荐进行常规检查。对于超声心动图显示左心室质量增加和左心室肥厚且有异常形态学改变的患者,死亡率和心血管事件的风险增加。[53]Milani RV, Lavie CJ, Mehra MR, et al. Left ventricular geometry and survival in patients with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. Am J Cardiol. 2006 Apr 1;97(7):959-63.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16563894?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Yasuno S, Ueshima K, Oba K, et al. Clinical significance of left ventricular hypertrophy and changes in left ventricular mass in high-risk hypertensive patients: a subanalysis of the Candesartan Antihypertensive Survival Evaluation in Japan trial. J Hypertens. 2009 Aug;27(8):1705-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19412127?tool=bestpractice.com 增加的心血管事件与颈动脉血管超声发现的颈动脉中层内膜厚度增高有关。[55]Zanchetti A, Hennig M, Hollweck R, et al. Baseline values but not treatment induced changes in carotid intima media thickness predict incident cardiovascular events in treated hypertensives: findings in the European Lacidipine Study on Atherosclerosis (ELSA). Circulation. 2009 Sep 22;120(12):1084-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19738145?tool=bestpractice.com
对于有难治性高血压以及有阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停体征或症状的患者,可以考虑睡眠检查。
如果病史或体检或常规实验室检查提示为继发性高血压,可以进行进一步的检查。[2]Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018 Sep 1;39(33):3021-104.https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/39/33/3021/5079119http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30165516?tool=bestpractice.com
儿茶酚胺过量的体征/症状需要进行嗜铬细胞瘤筛查。
甲状腺功能亢进或减退的体征/症状需要检测促甲状腺激素 (TSH)。
如果存在不明原因的低钾血症,应当检测血浆肾素活性 (plasma renin activity, PRA)/醛固酮、儿茶酚胺以及寻找提示皮质醇增多症的线索(例如细纹)。
血浆醛固酮和肾素的测量还适用于以下情况:在不同日的 3 次测量中,血压均维持在 150/100 mmHg 以上且对 3 种常规降压药(包括利尿剂)具有耐药性,或需要通过 4 种或以上的降压药控制血压 (140/90 mmHg);高血压和自发性或利尿剂诱导的低钾血症;高血压和肾上腺偶发瘤;高血压和睡眠呼吸暂停;高血压和早发性高血压或脑血管意外(40 岁)家族史;原发性醛固酮增多症患者的高血压一级亲属。[56]Funder JW, Carey RM, Mantero F, et al. The management of primary aldosteronism: case detection, diagnosis, and treatment: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016 May;101(5):1889-916.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26934393?tool=bestpractice.com
对难以控制的高血压或腹部有杂音的年轻患者进行肾动脉成像。[2]Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. 2018 ESC/ESH guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018 Sep 1;39(33):3021-104.https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/39/33/3021/5079119http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30165516?tool=bestpractice.com 影像学可能显示肾脏瘢痕或损伤。
关于如何进行心电图的动画演示