自杀由心理、生物、遗传、社会和环境等多种因素引起。自杀的重要组成部分是精神疾病,研究称,超过 90% 的自杀死亡者诊断有精神障碍。[14]Mann JJ, Apter A, Bertolote J, et al. Suicide prevention strategies: a systematic review. JAMA. 2005 Oct 26;294(16):2064-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16249421?tool=bestpractice.com
与自杀相关的最常见的两种精神障碍是重性抑郁障碍和物质滥用。[15]Barraclough B, Bunch J, Nelson B, et al. A hundred cases of suicide: clinical aspects. Br J Psychiatry. 1974 Oct;125(0):355-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4425774?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Harris EC, Barraclough B. Suicide as an outcome for mental disorders: a meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 1997 Mar;170:205-28.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9229027?tool=bestpractice.com[17]McGirr A, Renaud J, Seguin M, et al. Course of major depressive disorder and suicide outcome: a psychological autopsy study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008 Jun;69(6):966-70.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18384248?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Anguiano L, Mayer DK, Piven ML, et al. A literature review of suicide in cancer patients. Cancer Nurs. 2012 Jul-Aug;35(4):E14-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21946906?tool=bestpractice.com 不过,不同的精神障碍有不同程度的自杀风险。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 特定精神障碍疾病患者发生自杀的风险比较摘自 Harris EC, et al. Br J Psychiatry 1997;170:205-228 [Citation ends].
已有相关研究表明,躯体疾病也与自杀风险增加有关。有报告指出亨廷顿病患者、癫痫患者及神经外科术后的自杀率增加。[19]Harris EC, Barraclough BM. Suicide as an outcome for medical disorders. Medicine (Baltimore). 1994 Nov;73(6):281-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7984079?tool=bestpractice.com 与自杀风险相关的其他躯体疾病包括 HIV/AIDS、卒中、癌症(尤其是肺和上呼吸道、胃肠道、中枢神经系统 (central nervous system, CNS)、淋巴网状系统、胰腺、前列腺和肾脏的癌症)、多发性硬化、消化性溃疡病、肾脏疾病、脊髓损伤和系统性红斑狼疮。[18]Anguiano L, Mayer DK, Piven ML, et al. A literature review of suicide in cancer patients. Cancer Nurs. 2012 Jul-Aug;35(4):E14-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21946906?tool=bestpractice.com[19]Harris EC, Barraclough BM. Suicide as an outcome for medical disorders. Medicine (Baltimore). 1994 Nov;73(6):281-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7984079?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Pompili M, Forte A, Palermo M, et al. Suicide risk in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review of current literature. J Psychosom Res. 2012 Dec;73(6):411-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23148807?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Pompili M, Venturini P, Campi S, et al. Do stroke patients have an increased risk of developing suicidal ideation or dying by suicide? An overview of the current literature. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2012 Sep;18(9):711-21.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1755-5949.2012.00364.x/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22943140?tool=bestpractice.com 无论是否有抑郁,睡眠障碍(包括梦魇、失眠、失眠亚型)都与自杀意念、自杀企图和自杀的显著风险增加相关。[22]Pigeon WR, Pinquart M, Conner K. Meta-analysis of sleep disturbance and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. J Clin Psychiatry. 2012 Sep;73(9):e1160-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23059158?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 有或无相应躯体疾病时的自杀风险比较数据摘自 Harris EC, et al. Br J Psychiatry 1997;170:205-228; McGirr A, et al. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69:966-970; Harris EC, et al. Medicine (Baltimore) 1994;73:281-296; Anguiano LM. A literature review of suicide in cancer patients. Cancer Nursing. 2012;35:E14-E26 [Citation ends].
躯体疾病和自杀风险增加的关联被认为部分原因在于并发精神疾病。例如,脑损伤可能是由物质滥用或自杀企图所致;因中枢神经系统疾病引起的脑功能改变可能会导致心境障碍或人格障碍;残疾、缺陷及社会隔离可能会导致心境障碍。[19]Harris EC, Barraclough BM. Suicide as an outcome for medical disorders. Medicine (Baltimore). 1994 Nov;73(6):281-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7984079?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,绝症诊断可能导致患者希望用自己的方式来提前结束生命。[23]Breitbart W, Rosenfeld B, Pessin H, et al. Depression, hopelessness, and desire for hastened death in terminally ill patients with cancer. JAMA. 2000 Dec 13;284(22):2907-11.http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/284/22/2907http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11147988?tool=bestpractice.com 其他针对躯体疾病在对自杀作用的研究发现,即使在控制各种精神障碍之后,躯体疾病和自杀企图之间仍然相关。[24]Goodwin RD, Marusic A, Hoven CW. Suicide attempts in the United States: the role of physical illness. Soc Sci Med. 2003 Apr;56(8):1783-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12639594?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Druss B, Pincus H. Suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in general medical illnesses. Arch Intern Med. 2000 May 22;160(10):1522-6.http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/160/10/1522http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10826468?tool=bestpractice.com
对社会弱势、原生家庭不完整、父母患有精神病及童年躯体或性虐待既往史等自杀的危险因素也进行了研究,尤其是在青年人中。[26]Langille DB, Curtis L, Hughes J, et al. Association of socio-economic factors with health risk behaviours among high school students in rural Nova Scotia. Can J Public Health. 2003 Nov-Dec;94(6):442-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14700244?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Gould MS, Greenberg T, Velting DM, et al. Youth suicide risk and preventive interventions: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003 Apr;42(4):386-405.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12649626?tool=bestpractice.com 研究发现,父母曾经企图自杀或因自杀死亡导致子代自杀死亡的风险增加至近两倍。[28]Geulayov G, Gunnell D, Holmen TL, et al. The association of parental fatal and non-fatal suicidal behaviour with offspring suicidal behaviour and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2012 Aug;42(8):1567-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22129460?tool=bestpractice.com 性取向也被视为自杀企图的危险因素,但目前尚不清楚是否与自杀死亡增加独立相关。[29]Lester D. Sexual orientation and suicidal behavior. Psychol Rep. 2006 Dec;99(3):923-4.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17305212?tool=bestpractice.com有证据显示,最近丧亲可能增加风险,尤其是在年轻人中。[30]University of Manchester. National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Homicide by People with Mental Illness (NCISH) report: suicide by children and young people. July 2017 [internet publication].https://www.hqip.org.uk/public/cms/253/625/19/870/CYP%20report%20FINAL.pdf?realName=8iQSvI.pdf&v=0
自杀是惩戒场所最常见的死亡原因,经常被报道。作为整体而言,服刑人员比社区人员有更高的自杀率。一项关于囚犯自杀危险因素的系统评价指出,使用单间牢房、近期自杀意念、自杀未遂史、精神病诊断和酒精使用问题史是最重要的危险因素。[8]Fazel S, Cartwright J, Norman-Nott A, et al. Suicide in prisoners: a systematic review of risk factors. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008 Nov;69(11):1721-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19026254?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,有关监狱自杀的国际协会自杀预防工作组 (Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons) 已确定了囚犯人群中自杀高风险人群的特征。[31]Konrad N, Daigle MS, Daniel AE, et al. International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Preventing suicide in prisons, part I. Recommendations from the International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Crisis. 2007;28(3):113-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17992824?tool=bestpractice.com 预审囚犯的自杀风险与男性、年轻(20-25 岁)、未婚状态以及因轻微罪行(通常与物质相关)初次被逮捕相关。[31]Konrad N, Daigle MS, Daniel AE, et al. International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Preventing suicide in prisons, part I. Recommendations from the International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Crisis. 2007;28(3):113-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17992824?tool=bestpractice.com 他们在被捕时通常处于迷醉状态,在监禁早期,或在临近出庭时死于自杀,特别是预计结果不好时。[31]Konrad N, Daigle MS, Daniel AE, et al. International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Preventing suicide in prisons, part I. Recommendations from the International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Crisis. 2007;28(3):113-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17992824?tool=bestpractice.com 与预审囚犯相比,获刑犯人自杀相关的因素包括年龄较大(30-35 岁)、暴力罪犯以及已经被拘留较长时间(通常为 4 年或 5 年)。[31]Konrad N, Daigle MS, Daniel AE, et al. International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Preventing suicide in prisons, part I. Recommendations from the International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Crisis. 2007;28(3):113-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17992824?tool=bestpractice.com 在这个人群中,自杀可能由与狱内其他犯人或管理者之间的冲突、家庭矛盾或分手、或者与其法律地位相关的负面结果导致。[31]Konrad N, Daigle MS, Daniel AE, et al. International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Preventing suicide in prisons, part I. Recommendations from the International Association for Suicide Prevention Task Force on Suicide in Prisons. Crisis. 2007;28(3):113-21.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17992824?tool=bestpractice.com
某些职业可能有更大的自杀风险(例如英国的医疗和牙科专业人员)。[32]Meltzer H, Griffiths C, Brock A, et al. Patterns of suicide by occupation in England and Wales: 2001-2005. Br J Psychiatry. 2008 Jul;193(1):73-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18700224?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,与有工作者相比,失业者自杀率往往更高。[33]Gallagher LM, Kliem C, Beautrais AL, et al. Suicide and occupation in New Zealand, 2001-2005. Int J Occup Environ Health. 2008 Jan-Mar;14(1):45-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18320731?tool=bestpractice.com
发展中国家的自杀危险因素可能与发达国家有所不同。例如,在一些发展中国家,已婚女性的自杀风险最高,而在发达国家,离婚、丧偶或分居男性的自杀风险较高。[11]Vijayakumar L. Suicide prevention: the urgent need in developing countries. World Psychiatry. 2004 Oct;3(3):158-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1414701/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16633485?tool=bestpractice.com 非西方国家的其他自杀危险因素可能包括社会动荡、经济不稳、致命手段容易获得(例如农药)、社会文化因素以及缺乏有效的精神卫生服务。
获得致命手段会显著增加自杀死亡风险。美国全国死亡率回顾调查显示,家里有枪支时自杀可能性增加 28 倍(OR 27.9,95% CI 为 18.7 至 41.4)。[34]Dahlberg LL, Ikeda RM, Kresnow MJ. Guns in the home and risk of a violent death in the home: findings from a national study. Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Nov 15;160(10):929-36.http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/160/10/929http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15522849?tool=bestpractice.com 自杀的最致命方法是枪杀,致死率约为 90%,其次是上吊、绞杀和窒息。[35]Elnour AA, Harrison J. Lethality of suicide methods. Inj Prev. 2008 Feb;14(1):39-45.http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/14/1/39.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18245314?tool=bestpractice.com 药物过量和割伤是两种较不致命的工具,致死率分别为 2% 和 3%。[35]Elnour AA, Harrison J. Lethality of suicide methods. Inj Prev. 2008 Feb;14(1):39-45.http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/14/1/39.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18245314?tool=bestpractice.com 自杀的其他方法是溺水;气体、液体或固体中毒;自焚;跳到移动物体前面或从高处跳下;机动车碰撞。