早期发现及治疗对改善脓毒症的预后至关重要。治疗指南由拯救脓毒症运动提出,且目前仍是接受最广泛的标准。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com 现行最佳实践是基于脓毒症中的集束治疗证据。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[109]Rhodes A, Phillips G, Beale R, et al. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign bundles and outcome: results from the International Multicentre Prevalence Study on Sepsis (the IMPreSS study). Intensive Care Med. 2015 Sep;41(9):1620-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26109396?tool=bestpractice.com[110]Levy MM, Rhodes A, Phillips GS, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: association between performance metrics and outcomes in a 7.5-year study. Intensive Care Med. 2014 Nov;40(11):1623-33.http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00134-014-3496-0/fulltext.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25270221?tool=bestpractice.com[111]Seymour CW, Gesten F, Prescott HC, et al. Time to treatment and mortality during mandated emergency care for sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2017 Jun 8;376(23):2235-44.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1703058?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.govhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28528569?tool=bestpractice.com 它们包括:
在抗生素给药前进行血液培养
给予靶向作用于可疑病原体的广谱抗生素
给予 30 mL/kg 晶体液治疗低血压或乳酸≥4 mmol/L (≥36 mg/dL)
连续测量血液乳酸水平
在补液治疗无效的患者中,使用血管加压药维持平均动脉压 (MAP)≥65 mmHg
在初始乳酸水平≥4 mmol/L (≥36 mg/dL) 的患者中,或持续存在低血压(即:MAP<65 mmHg)的患者中,重复使用重点检查(包括生命体征和心肺、毛细血管再充盈、脉搏和皮肤观察结果)或使用下列方法中的 2 种评估容量状态和灌注:
测量中心静脉压
测量中心静脉氧饱和度
床边心血管超声检查
通过被动抬腿或液体冲击试验动态评估容量反应性。
英国国家卫生与临床优化研究所 (NICE) 指南建议,如果患者的乳酸水平≥2 mmol/L (≥18 mg/dL) 且至少符合一项高风险标准,则给予晶体液。[3]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51 如果患者的乳酸水平>2 mmol/L (>18 mg/dL) 并且至少有两项中等风险至高风险标准或急性肾损伤证据,也建议给予晶体液。对于乳酸<2 mmol/L (<18 mg/dL) 的患者,如果符合至少一项高风险标准,也可考虑给予晶体液。[3]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51
脓毒症 6 项 (Sepsis Six)
“脓毒症 6 项”是基础治疗的集束化方案,已被证明可改善脓毒症患者的结局。如果诊断脓毒症后一小时内完成这 6 个因素,则脓毒症患者的相关死亡率会减少高达 50%。[59]Daniels R, Nutbeam I, McNamara G, et al. The sepsis six and the severe sepsis resuscitation bundle: a prospective observational cohort study. Emerg Med J. 2011 Jun;28(6):507-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21036796?tool=bestpractice.com 这 6 个因素包括:
对于初始治疗耐受的患者,尤其是脓毒性休克的患者,可能需要侵入性监测并考虑器官功能支持(例如中心静脉导管和升压药),所以很可能需要转入高依赖病房或重症监护病房 (ICU) 治疗。
给予合适的快速液体冲击治疗是基本干预的一部分,目的是恢复器官供氧和组织需氧的平衡。对充足快速静脉补液干预无应答的患者,视为出现脓毒性休克。这组患者的当务之急是恢复循环和供氧。
早期目标导向液体疗法曾经是治疗金标准,[112]Gerlach H, Keh D. Sepsis in 2003: are we still in the middle of nowhere? Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2004 Apr;17(2):97-106.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17021536?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 8;345(19):1368-77.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa010307#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11794169?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Puskarich MA, Marchick MR, Kline JA, et al. One year mortality of patients treated with an emergency department based early goal directed therapy protocol for severe sepsis and septic shock: a before and after study. Crit Care. 2009;13(5):R167.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2784398/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19845956?tool=bestpractice.com[97]Freire AX, Bridges L, Umpierrez GE, et al. Admission hyperglycemia and other risk factors as predictors of hospital mortality in a medical ICU population. Chest. 2005 Nov;128(5):3109-16.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16304250?tool=bestpractice.com[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[113]Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP. Other supportive therapies in sepsis: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004 Nov;32(suppl 11):S571-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15542966?tool=bestpractice.com[114]Jones AE, Focht A, Horton JM, et al. Prospective external validation of the clinical effectiveness of an emergency department-based early goal-directed therapy protocol for severe sepsis and septic shock. Chest. 2007 Aug;132(2):425-32.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2703721/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17573521?tool=bestpractice.com 但几项随机、前瞻性研究发现,这种治疗相对于常规治疗并没有明显益处。[115]ProCESS Investigators; Yealy DM, Kellum JA, Huang DT, et al. A randomized trial of protocol-based care for early septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2014 May 1;370(18):1683-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4101700/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24635773?tool=bestpractice.com[116]ARISE Investigators; ANZICS Clinical Trials Group; Peake SL, Delaney A, Bailey M, et al. Goal-directed resuscitation for patients with early septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2014 Oct 16;371(16):1496-506.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1404380#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25272316?tool=bestpractice.com[117]Mouncey PR, Osborn TM, Power GS, et al. Trial of early, goal-directed resuscitation for septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2015 Apr 2;372(14):1301-11.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1500896#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25776532?tool=bestpractice.com[118]Andrews B, Muchemwa L, Kelly P, et al. Simplified severe sepsis protocol: a randomized controlled trial of modified early goal-directed therapy in Zambia. Crit Care Med. 2014 Nov;42(11):2315-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4199893/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25072757?tool=bestpractice.com[119]Mouncey PR, Osborn TM, Power GS, et al. Protocolised Management In Sepsis (ProMISe): a multicentre randomised controlled trial of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of early, goal-directed, protocolised resuscitation for emerging septic shock. Health Technol Assess. 2015 Nov;19(97):i-xxv;1-150.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK327197/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26597979?tool=bestpractice.com[120]Mouncey PR, Osborn TM, Power GS, et al. Protocolised Management In Sepsis (ProMISe): a multicentre randomised controlled trial of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of early, goal-directed, protocolised resuscitation for emerging septic shock. Health Technol Assess. 2015 Nov;19(97):i-xxv;1-150.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK327205/#s3-1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26597979?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,早期以目标为导向的治疗(例如恢复循环容量、纠正低血压和评估心输出量)的核心原则仍对治疗脓毒症有重要意义,目前在许多急诊科,已经成为标准临床治疗操作。
监测生命体征和对液体治疗的应答至关重要。应通过脉搏血氧测定法和系列乳酸检测评价氧合作用,同时监测尿量变化。治疗对乳酸的改善无效,提示预后差。研究证明,乳酸清除率与生存率正相关。[85]Nguyen HB, Rivers EP, Knoblich BP, et al. Early lactate clearance is associated with improved outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004 Aug;32(8):1637-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15286537?tool=bestpractice.com 对于所有接受血管加压药的患者,只要可行,就应尽快置入动脉导管,以更准确地监测动脉压。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com
抗生素治疗
明确病原体前应静脉注射广谱抗生素。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[121]Kumar A, Ellis P, Arabi Y, et al. Initiation of inappropriate antimicrobial therapy results in a fivefold reduction of survival in human septic shock. Chest. 2009 Nov;136(5):1237-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19696123?tool=bestpractice.com[122]Kumar A, Roberts D, Wood KE, et al. Duration of hypotension prior to initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006 Jun;34(6):1589-96.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16625125?tool=bestpractice.com 应在疑似脓毒症的一小时内开始抗生素治疗,最好是在取得培养结果后。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[3]National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Sepsis: recognition, diagnosis and early management. September 2017 [internet publication].https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng51 第一个小时内使用合适的抗生素对生存率最大化至关重要。[59]Daniels R, Nutbeam I, McNamara G, et al. The sepsis six and the severe sepsis resuscitation bundle: a prospective observational cohort study. Emerg Med J. 2011 Jun;28(6):507-12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21036796?tool=bestpractice.com[123]Gaieski DF, Mikkelsen ME, Band RA, et al. Impact of time to antibiotics on survival in patients with severe sepsis or septic shock in whom early goal-directed therapy was initiated in the emergency department. Crit Care Med. 2010 Apr;38(4):1045-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20048677?tool=bestpractice.com[124]Johnston AN, Park J, Doi SA, et al. Effect of immediate administration of antibiotics in patients with sepsis in tertiary care: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Ther. 2017 Jan;39(1):190-202;e6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28062114?tool=bestpractice.com[125]National Institute for Health Research. NIHR Signal: giving immediate antibiotics reduces deaths from sepsis. April 2017 [internet publication].https://discover.dc.nihr.ac.uk/portal/article/4000628/giving-immediate-antibiotics-reduces-deaths-from-sepsis 一项系统评价推荐,抗假单胞菌 β-内酰胺类抗生素应在至少 3 小时的时间里(而不是快速大量静脉注射或在 60 分钟内)给予接受重症监护治疗的脓毒症患者,因有证据表明这可以减少高达 30% 的死亡率。[126]Vardakas KZ, Voulgaris GL, Maliaros A, et al. Prolonged versus short-term intravenous infusion of antipseudomonal β-lactams for patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Jan;18(1):108-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29102324?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,延长输注时间是超说明书用药 (off-label) 的,因大多数药物使用说明书推荐 β-内酰胺类抗生素的输注时间为 15 至 60 分钟。
在决定经验性治疗时,了解当地流行的病原体及其抗生素耐药情况至关重要。[121]Kumar A, Ellis P, Arabi Y, et al. Initiation of inappropriate antimicrobial therapy results in a fivefold reduction of survival in human septic shock. Chest. 2009 Nov;136(5):1237-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19696123?tool=bestpractice.com[127]Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, et al. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med. 2001 Jul;29(7):1303-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11445675?tool=bestpractice.com 必须根据当地抗生素使用规范,对经验性应用抗生素推荐进行个体化调整,以适用于各个临床机构。一旦得到培养和药敏结果,应根据已知的病原体调整抗生素。如果有持续或反复高热或发现新部位的感染,应进行重复培养(例如,间隔 6-8 个小时)。应对怀疑感染的部位针对性使用抗生素。如果没有提示感染部位的临床证据且仍旧疑似脓毒症,仍应经验性使用广谱抗生素。
在识别了病原体并获得药敏结果后,应当尽快缩窄经验性抗生素的抗菌谱。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[128]Paul M, Dickstein Y, Raz-Pasteur A. Antibiotic de-escalation for bloodstream infections and pneumonia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2016 Dec;22(12):960-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27283148?tool=bestpractice.com
呼吸道感染源
呼吸道感染大约占 30%-50%。虽然一些病房更愿意对需要重症监护的重度肺炎患者使用联合治疗方案,但是单药治疗和联合治疗对社区获得性肺炎同样有效。[129]Chokshi R, Restrepo MI, Weeratunge N, et al. Monotherapy versus combination antibiotic therapy for patients with bacteremic Streptococcus pneumoniae community-acquired pneumonia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2007 Jul;26(7):447-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17534677?tool=bestpractice.com 治疗方案应该覆盖常见呼吸道病原体和非典型病原体,例如嗜肺军团菌。
列出的抗生素仅仅是指导建议。应查询和遵守已有的当地或国家政策,这些政策可能参考了抗生素敏感性模式的专业知识。联合治疗应该包括一种 β-内酰胺类药物(例如苄基青霉素,头孢噻肟,或阿莫西林/克拉维酸)和一种大环内酯类药物(例如阿奇霉素)。合适的单药治疗方案是使用一种作用于呼吸系统的喹诺酮类药物,例如莫西沙星或左氧氟沙星,或者也可以使用多西环素替代。这些单药治疗方案可用于对青霉素过敏的患者。
对铜绿假单胞菌和耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌 (MRSA) 出现多重耐药的危险因素会影响抗菌药物的选择,应对危险因素进行评估。危险因素包括住院治疗(>48 小时,包括居住在养老院)或过去 90 天内全身性应用抗生素。应关注是否存在 MRSA 感染史或定植史。近期发现,社区获得性 MRSA 肺炎不断增加,特别是与流感病毒感染相关的肺炎。与非 MRSA 重度肺炎相比,社区获得性 MRSA 肺炎的死亡率稍高,为 33%。[130]Lessa FC, Mu Y, Ray SM, et al; Active Bacterial Core surveillance (ABCs); MRSA Investigators of the Emerging Infections Program. Impact of USA300 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on clinical outcomes of patients with pneumonia or central line-associated bloodstream infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Jul;55(2):232-41.https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/cid/cis408http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22523264?tool=bestpractice.com
特别严重的社区获得性肺炎的患者,尤其是出现咯血、休克和流感样前驱症状时,应考虑为 MRSA 和对甲氧西林敏感的金黄色葡萄球菌。[131]Pogue M, Burton S, Kreyling P, et al. Severe methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus community-acquired pneumonia associated with influenza: Louisiana and Georgia, December 2006 - January 2007. JAMA. 2007;297:2070-2.http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/297/19/2070.full[132]Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007 Mar 1;44(suppl 2):S27-72.https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/44/Supplement_2/S27/372079?searchresult=1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17278083?tool=bestpractice.com[133]Hageman JC, Uyeki TM, Francis JS, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia due to Staphylococcus aureus, 2003-04 influenza season. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006 Jun;12(6):894-9.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3373026/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16707043?tool=bestpractice.com
对于高风险的患者,可使用亚胺培南/西司他丁等碳青霉烯类抗生素,或使用一种抗假单胞菌青霉素(例如哌拉西林/他唑巴坦)与一种氨基糖苷类抗生素(例如庆大霉素)联合治疗,从而实现更广谱的覆盖。替加环素可用于青霉素过敏的患者,但是单药治疗可能会增加死亡风险,因此应谨慎使用。使用替加环素之前,应先咨询专家。[134]Yahav D, Lador A, Paul M, et al. Efficacy and safety of tigecycline: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011 Sep;66(9):1963-71.https://academic.oup.com/jac/article/66/9/1963/766876http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21685488?tool=bestpractice.com 对于具有 MRSA 风险或出现咯血的异常的严重肺炎患者患者,应在以上治疗方案中添加万古霉素或利奈唑胺。有假单胞菌感染显著危险因素(支气管扩张、全身应用皮质类固醇、营养不良)的患者,应考虑在以上治疗方案中添加环丙沙星。
尿路感染源
尿路感染大约占 10%-20%。保证尿路的通畅至关重要。需要覆盖革兰氏阴性大肠杆菌和假单胞菌,列出的抗生素仅仅是指南建议。应查询和遵守已有的当地或国家政策,这些政策可能参考了敏感性模式的专业知识。合适的单药治疗方案是联合使用氨苄西林或一种头孢菌素(例如头孢噻肟)和庆大霉素。环丙沙星可用于青霉素过敏的患者。
腹部感染源
腹部引起的感染约占 20%-25%。治疗应覆盖革兰氏阳性菌和革兰氏阴性菌,包括厌氧菌。腹膜炎或腹腔内脓肿需要尽快手术引流或经皮引流(合适部位)。
列出的抗生素仅仅是指南建议。应查询和遵守已有的当地或国家政策,这些政策可能参考了敏感性模式的专业知识。可使用氨苄西林或头孢噻肟联合甲硝唑和庆大霉素作为治疗方案,或哌拉西林/他唑巴坦联合庆大霉素。替加环素和庆大霉素适用于青霉素过敏的患者。
反复大肠穿孔的患者出现侵入性真菌血症的风险不断升高。抗菌覆盖中应添加一种唑类药物,例如氟康唑,或一种棘白菌素类药物,例如米卡芬净。非白色念珠菌对唑类药物的耐药性正不断升高。[37]Solomkin JS, Mazuski J. Intra-abdominal sepsis: newer interventional and antimicrobial therapies. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2009 Sep;23(3):593-608.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19665085?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Montravers P, Dupont H, Gauzit R, et al. Candida as a risk factor for mortality in peritonitis. Crit Care Med. 2006 Mar;34(3):646-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16505648?tool=bestpractice.com[135]Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes DR, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis: 2016 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Feb 15;62(4):e1-50.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4725385/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26679628?tool=bestpractice.com
软组织和关节感染源
不同类别的感染包括脓毒性关节炎、伤口感染、蜂窝织炎和慢性溃疡引起的急性超感染,约占 5%-10%。应高度怀疑坏死性筋膜炎,该病需要立即手术干预(与化脓性关节炎一样)。大多数感染都是由多种微生物引起,应使用覆盖革兰氏阳性和革兰氏阴性病原体,包括厌氧菌在内的广谱抗生素。
列出的抗生素仅仅是指南建议。应查询和遵守已有的当地或国家政策,这些政策可能参考了敏感性模式的专业知识。一种合适的方案是使用氟氯西林(或对于青霉素过敏患者,使用替加环素)联合甲硝唑。或者可用克林霉素替代。如果患者有 MRSA 的风险,应加用万古霉素(或利奈唑胺)。
如果怀疑坏死性筋膜炎,联合使用克林霉素和氟氯西林或替加环素是较为合理的治疗选择。
中枢神经系统 (CNS) 感染源
中枢神经系统感染相对少见,但是是脓毒症潜在的严重病因,约占 5%。脑膜炎球菌脓毒症可快速致死,如果患者存活,该病会导致更高的发病率。立即对疑似患者使用抗生素治疗十分必要。
列出的抗生素仅仅是指南建议。应查询和遵守已有的当地或国家政策,这些政策可能参考了敏感性模式的专业知识。疑似脑膜炎或脑膜炎球菌性脓毒症应该立即使用第三代头孢菌素治疗,例如头孢曲松或头孢噻肟。青霉素过敏的患者,可用万古霉素联合氯霉素替代治疗。也有人建议在以上两种方案中加用利福平,以帮助增加渗透能力。
对超过 50 岁、有酗酒史或其他导致衰弱的疾病、或李斯特菌感染风险增加的患者(例如,妊娠女性),单用头孢菌素的覆盖率不充分。对于无青霉素过敏的患者,治疗方案中应加用氨苄西林。对于青霉素过敏的患者,可用红霉素或甲氧苄啶/磺胺甲恶唑替代。
起病更隐匿、且出现中枢神经系统症状的患者,应怀疑病毒性脑炎。病毒引起的脓毒症极为罕见,但是早期使用抗病毒药物,例如阿昔洛韦,能够改善结局。
使用皮质类固醇治疗细菌性脑膜炎,可以改善神经系统结局。[136]Brouwer MC, McIntyre P, Prasad K, et al. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(9):CD004405.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004405.pub5/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26362566?tool=bestpractice.com
来源不明的脓毒症
应积极用各种方法,包括影像学检查,以评估感染源。应给予广谱抗生素治疗,以覆盖所有常见病原体。
列出的抗生素仅仅是指南建议。应查询和遵守已有的当地或国家政策,这些政策可能参考了敏感性模式的专业知识。碳青霉烯类抗生素可以实现适宜的广谱覆盖,可选择亚胺培南或美罗培南。哌拉西林/他唑巴坦联合庆大霉素是可用的替代治疗选择。如果患者有 MRSA 感染的风险,应加用万古霉素。
液体复苏
对于脓毒症引起灌注不足的患者,需要积极的早期液体复苏,在最初 3 个小时内给予至少 30 mL/kg 体重的晶体液。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com 可能需要额外的液体补充,但这应当依据对患者血流动力学状态的临床评估决定。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com
重复进行快速晶体液推注 5-30 分钟(液体量通常为 500 mL),可能有效纠正继发于低血容量的低血压。也可静脉推注胶体液(通常容量为 250 mL-300 mL)替代,但是没有证据表明胶体液优于其他液体,例如晶体液或白蛋白溶液。[137]Choi PTL, Yip G, Quinonez LG, et al. Crystalloids vs. colloids in fluid resuscitation: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 1999 Jan;27(1):200-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9934917?tool=bestpractice.com[138]Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, et al. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004 May 27;350(22):2247-56.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa040232#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15163774?tool=bestpractice.com[139]Perel P, Roberts I, Ker K. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(2):CD000567.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000567.pub6/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23450531?tool=bestpractice.com[140]Puskarich MA. Emergency management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2012 Aug;18(4):295-300.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22622514?tool=bestpractice.com[141]Margarson MP, Soni NC. Effects of albumin supplementation on microvascular permeability in septic patients. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2002 May;92(5):2139-45.http://jap.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/92/5/2139http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11960967?tool=bestpractice.com[142]Roberts I, Blackhall K, Alderson P, et al. Human albumin solution for resuscitation and volume expansion in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(11):CD001208.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001208.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22071799?tool=bestpractice.com[143]Uhing MR. The albumin controversy. Clin Perinatol. 2004 Sep;31(3):475-88.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15325533?tool=bestpractice.com[144]Upadhyay M, Singhi S, Murlidharan J, et al. Randomized evaluation of fluid resuscitation with crystalloid (saline) and colloid (polymer from degraded gelatin in saline) in pediatric septic shock. Indian Pediatr. 2005 Mar;42(3):223-31.https://www.indianpediatrics.net/mar2005/mar-223-231.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15817970?tool=bestpractice.com[145]Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Sindi A, et al. Fluid resuscitation in sepsis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Sep 2;161(5):347-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25047428?tool=bestpractice.com 含有淀粉的溶液可能有害,应当避免。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[146]Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Gibson A, et al; FISSH Group (Fluids in Sepsis and Septic Shock). Fluid type and the use of renal replacement therapy in sepsis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2015 Sep;41(9):1561-71.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25904181?tool=bestpractice.com 有证据表明,使用含羟乙基淀粉 (hydroxyethyl starch, HES) 的溶液可导致肾功能障碍和结局不良的风险升高。[147]Schortgen F, Lacherade JC, Bruneel F, et al. Effects of hydroxyethylstarch and gelatine on renal function in severe sepsis: a multicentre randomised study. Lancet. 2001 Mar 24;357(9260):911-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11289347?tool=bestpractice.com[148]Sakr Y, Payen D, Reinhart K, et al. Effects of hydroxyethyl starch administration on renal function in critically ill patients. Br J Anaesth. 2007 Feb;98(2):216-24.http://bja.oxfordjournals.org/content/98/2/216.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17251213?tool=bestpractice.com[149]Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, et al; German Competence Network Sepsis (SepNet). Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jan 10;358(2):125-39.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa070716#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18184958?tool=bestpractice.com[150]Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB, et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer's acetate in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2012 Jul 12;367(2):124-34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22738085?tool=bestpractice.com[151]Myburgh JA, Finfer S, Bellomo R, et al. Hydroxyethyl starch or saline for fluid resuscitation in intensive care. N Engl J Med. 2012 Nov 15;367(20):1901-11.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1209759#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23075127?tool=bestpractice.com[152]Zarychanski R, Abou-Setta AM, Turgeon AF, et al. Association of hydroxyethyl starch administration with mortality and acute kidney injury in critically ill patients requiring volume resuscitation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2013 Feb 20;309(7):678-88.https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1653505http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23423413?tool=bestpractice.com[153]Reinhart K, Perner A, Sprung CL, et al. Consensus statement of the ESICM task force on colloid volume therapy in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2012 Mar;38(3):368-83.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22323076?tool=bestpractice.com 输液用 HES 溶液在欧盟区被严格限制,且禁忌用于危重症患者和存在脓毒症或肾脏损伤的患者。纳入这些措施旨在防止患者肾损伤风险升高以及预防 HES 相关死亡。 [154]European Medicines Agency. Hydroxyethyl starch solutions: CMDh introduces new measures to protect patients. June 2018. [internet publication]http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/news_and_events/news/2018/06/news_detail_002982.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058004d5c1这些限制条例是在 2018 年 1 月欧洲药品管理局药物警戒风险评估委员会 (Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee) 的一篇评价后出台的,由于尽管有对此的警告,HES 仍旧在高危人群中使用,故该委员会推荐禁止 HES 上市。[155]European Medicines Agency. Hydroxyethyl-starch solutions for infusion to be suspended - CMDh endorses PRAC recommendation. January 2018 [internet publication].http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/news_and_events/news/2018/01/news_detail_002892.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058004d5c1
应该根据当地规定给予晶体液和白蛋白。目前证据提示,使用含白蛋白的溶液进行复苏是安全的,但其证据有效性不充分,无法推荐其优于晶体液使用。[145]Rochwerg B, Alhazzani W, Sindi A, et al. Fluid resuscitation in sepsis: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2014 Sep 2;161(5):347-55.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25047428?tool=bestpractice.com[156]Patel A, Laffan MA, Waheed U, et al. Randomised trials of human albumin for adults with sepsis: systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of all-cause mortality. BMJ. 2014 Jul 22;349:g4561.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4106199/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25099709?tool=bestpractice.com[157]Delaney AP, Dan A, McCaffrey J, et al. The role of albumin as a resuscitation fluid for patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2011 Feb;39(2):386-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21248514?tool=bestpractice.com 对于危重症的重症监护患者,平衡晶体液可能优于生理盐水。[158]Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2018 Mar 1;378(9):829-39.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29485925?tool=bestpractice.com 可考虑输注红细胞或血浆来纠正特定不足,但是不应该用于扩大容量。尚未证明积极输注红细胞可以改善结果。[159]Holst LB, Haase N, Wetterslev J, et al; TRISS Trial Group; Scandinavian Critical Care Trials Group. Lower versus higher hemoglobin threshold for transfusion in septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2014 Oct 9;371(15):1381-91.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1406617#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25270275?tool=bestpractice.com
应密切监控患者是否出现容量超负荷的体征(例如肺部或全身水肿)。[160]Hollenberg SM, Ahrens TS, Annane D, et al. Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients; 2004 update. Crit Care Med. 2004 Sep;32(9):1928-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15343024?tool=bestpractice.com 下腔静脉 (IVC) 直径随呼吸的改变(通过床旁超声观察),可准确判断液体反应及是否需要进一步静脉输注溶液。自主呼吸的患者,IVC 塌陷或即将塌陷提示可通过额外液体复苏改善心输出量。机械通气的患者,如果正压通气时 IVC 大小增加>18%(或肉眼可见),则可出现液体反应。[161]Feissel M, Michard F, Faller JP, et al. The respiratory variation in inferior vena cava diameter as a guide to fluid therapy. Intensive Care Med. 2004 Sep;30(9):1834-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15045170?tool=bestpractice.com[162]Barbier C, Loubières Y, Schmit C, et al. Respiratory changes in inferior vena cava diameter are helpful in predicting fluid responsiveness in ventilated septic patients. Intensive Care Med. 2004 Sep;30(9):1740-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15034650?tool=bestpractice.com 一项系统评价显示,被动抬腿是通气患者中液体反应性的准确预测因素,无论呼吸机模式或技术如何,流量变量(例如心输出量)的准确性高于脉压。[163]Cherpanath TG, Hirsch A, Geerts BF, et al. Predicting fluid responsiveness by passive leg raising: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 23 clinical trials. Crit Care Med. 2016 May;44(5):981-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26741579?tool=bestpractice.com
危重患者的血糖控制
关于危重患者血糖控制的观点和临床实践都发生了变化。2001 年以来,主张对脓毒症患者进行严格血糖控制。然而最近证据显示,对患者进行严格血糖管理(血糖控制目标为 6.1 mmol/L),可增加不良事件(重度低血糖)的发生。[149]Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, et al; German Competence Network Sepsis (SepNet). Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jan 10;358(2):125-39.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa070716#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18184958?tool=bestpractice.com[164]Wiener RS, Wiener DC, Larson RJ. Benefits and risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008 Aug 27;300(8):933-44.http://jama.ama-assn.org/content/300/8/933.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18728267?tool=bestpractice.com 一项国际性随机对照试验证明,与接受传统血糖控制措施(血糖目标为 10 mmol/L [180 mg/dL])的患者相比,在接受强化血糖控制治疗的患者中,第 90 天时的绝对死亡风险增加 2.6 个百分点。[165]NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators, Finfer S, Chittock DR, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009 Mar 26;360(13):1283-97.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa0810625#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19318384?tool=bestpractice.com 美国糖尿病协会建议,对于危重糖尿病患者,一般血糖控制目标是 7.8-10.0 mmol/L (140-180 mg/dL),最好使用胰岛素输注方案。[166]American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2018. Diabetes Care. 2018;41(suppl 1):S1-159.http://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/41/Supplement_1 拯救脓毒症运动推荐使用注射胰岛素,目标血糖水平为<10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL)。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com
持续性血流动力学不稳定
如果持续存在低血压,且 MAP<65mmHg,应开始使用升压药。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[167]Rivers PE, McIntyre L, Morro DC, et al. Early and innovative interventions for severe sepsis and septic shock: taking advantage of a window of opportunity. CMAJ. 2005 Oct 25;173(9):1054-65.http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1054http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16247103?tool=bestpractice.com 应通过中心静脉导管给予去甲肾上腺素,该药可以升高MAP。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[168]Avni T, Lador A, Lev S, et al. Vasopressors for the treatment of septic shock: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2015 Aug 3;10(8):e0129305.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4523170/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26237037?tool=bestpractice.com[169]Møller MH, Claudius C, Junttila E, et al. Scandinavian SSAI clinical practice guideline on choice of first-line vasopressor for patients with acute circulatory failure. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2016 Nov;60(10):1347-66.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5213738/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27576362?tool=bestpractice.com可以将血管加压素或肾上腺素与去甲肾上腺素联合,以达到目标 MAP (≥65 mmHg),也可加用血管加压素,以停止使用去甲肾上腺素。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com 也可选用多巴胺,但只应对经高度选择的患者给药,因为与去甲肾上腺素相比,该药与死亡率更高相关。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[170]De Backer D, Aldecoa C, Njimi H, et al. Dopamine versus norepinephrine in the treatment of septic shock: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2012 Mar;40(3):725-30.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22036860?tool=bestpractice.com[171]Vasu TS, Cavallazzi R, Hirani A, et al. Norepinephrine or dopamine for septic shock: Systematic review of randomized clinical trials. J Intensive Care Med. 2012 May-Jun;27(3):172-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21436167?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How does norepinephrine compare with other vasopressors in people with hypotensive shock?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1296/full显示答案 应通过中心静脉安全导管高流量输注血管活性药物来纠正休克,除非资源不允许这样做以及情况紧急。不推荐为保护肾脏而使用低剂量多巴胺。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com
辅助治疗
给予充足液体复苏但心输出量依然较低的患者,可加用正性肌力药物(例如多巴酚丁胺)。根据临床检查(毛细血管再充盈时间延长,尿量减少,外周灌注不足)所怀疑的低心输出量可通过监测心输出量,或从中心静脉和肺动脉取血样测量血氧饱和度来确认诊断。心率应该保持在<100 bpm,以最大可能降低心肌耗氧量。[167]Rivers PE, McIntyre L, Morro DC, et al. Early and innovative interventions for severe sepsis and septic shock: taking advantage of a window of opportunity. CMAJ. 2005 Oct 25;173(9):1054-65.http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/173/9/1054http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16247103?tool=bestpractice.com
当前的指南建议,低剂量皮质类固醇只应用于血压对补液和血管加压药治疗反应不佳的患者。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[172]Annane D, Pastores SM, Rochwerg B, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI) in critically ill patients (Part I): Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) 2017. Crit Care Med. 2017 Dec;45(12):2078-88.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28938253?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,目前关于对脓毒症或脓毒性休克患者给予皮质类固醇的证据似乎互相矛盾。[173]Annane D, Bellissant E, Bollaert PE, et al. Corticosteroids for severe sepsis and septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2004 Aug 28;329(7464):480.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15289273http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15289273?tool=bestpractice.com[174]Deans KJ, Haley MD, Natanson C, et al. Novel therapies for sepsis: a review. J Trauma. 2005 Apr;58(4):867-74.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15824673?tool=bestpractice.com[175]Sprung CL, Annane D, Keh D, et al; CORTICUS study group. Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2008 Jan 10;358(2):111-24.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa071366?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.govhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18184957?tool=bestpractice.com[176]Beale R, Janes J, Brunkhorst F, et al. Global utilization of low-dose corticosteroids in severe sepsis and septic shock: a report from the PROGRESS registry. Crit Care. 2010;14(3):R102.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2911744/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20525247?tool=bestpractice.com[177]Ferrer R, Artigas A, Suarez D, et al. Effectiveness of treatments for severe sepsis: a prospective, multicenter, observational study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009 Nov 1;180(9):861-6.https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.200812-1912OChttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19696442?tool=bestpractice.com[178]Moreno R, Sprung CL, Annane D, et al. Time course of organ failure in patients with septic shock treated with hydrocortisone: results of the Corticus study. Intensive Care Med. 2011 Nov;37(11):1765-72.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21847649?tool=bestpractice.com[179]Annane D, Bellissant E, Bollaert PE, et al. Corticosteroids for treating sepsis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(12):CD002243.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD002243.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26633262?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How do corticosteroids affect outcomes when used to treat sepsis?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1231/full显示答案 一个国际专家组的结论显示,虽然个中证据不具决定性,但皮质类固醇可能会降低死亡率(约 2%),不过可增加神经肌肉无力的风险。无论脓毒症是否伴有休克,均具有此效应;不过皮质类固醇所带来的获益在脓毒性休克中最显著。该专家组的意见是,无论是否进行类固醇治疗,均为恰当的疾病管理方式,并提出,患者的价值观和偏好可用于指导决策。对于优先考虑生存而非生活质量的患者,可能会选择接受皮质类固醇治疗;但是对于那些相对于避免死亡而言,更重视避免发生功能退化并希望将生活质量最大化的患者来说,可能更倾向于选择不进行皮质类固醇治疗。[180]Lamontagne F, Rochwerg B, Lytvyn L, et al. Corticosteroid therapy for sepsis: a clinical practice guideline. BMJ. 2018 Aug 10;362:k3284.https://www.bmj.com/content/362/bmj.k3284.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30097460?tool=bestpractice.com
BMJ Rapid Recommendations: corticosteroid therapy for sepsis - a clinical practice guideline
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: BMJ 快速建议:静脉使用皮质类固醇+常规治疗 vs 仅采用常规治疗Lamontagne F, et al. BMJ 2018;362:k3284 [Citation ends].
MAGICapp: recommendations, evidence summaries and consultation decision aids
该专家组在回顾了 2018 年的两项结论不同的临床试验后,给出这些建议。2018 年 1 月发表的一项大型随机对照临床试验中,与安慰剂组相比,接受氢化可的松治疗的感染性休克患者在 28 天或 90 天死亡率方面没有获得显著改善(氢化可的松组的 90 天死亡率为 27.9%,安慰剂组为 28.8%)。接受氢化可的松治疗的患者休克确实消退得更快(中位数为 3 和 4 天),并且与未接受该治疗的患者相比,对输血的需求更低 (37.0% vs 41.7%),但患者在 ICU 的住院时间和对肾脏替代疗法的需求方面并没有显著差异。[181]Venkatesh B, Finfer S, Cohen J, et al; ADRENAL Trial Investigators and the Australian-New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group. Adjunctive glucocorticoid therapy in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2018 Mar 1;378(9):797-808.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1705835http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29347874?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,在另一项关于脓毒性休克患者的随机对照临床试验中,当联合应用氢化可的松和氟氢可的松时,90 天和 180 天全因死亡率显著下降。[182]Annane D, Renault A, Brun-Buisson C, et al; CRICS-TRIGGERSEP Network. Hydrocortisone plus fludrocortisone for adults with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2018 Mar 1;378(9):809-18.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29490185?tool=bestpractice.com
其他较新的治疗方法包括使用氯己定洗剂洗浴(能够降低医院获得性感染率)[183]Climo MW, Yokoe DS, Warren DK, et al. Effect of daily chlorhexidine bathing on hospital-acquired infection. N Engl J Med. 2013 Feb 7;368(6):533-42.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1113849?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.govhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23388005?tool=bestpractice.com 以及抗氧化剂,例如乙酰半胱氨酸。这些药物已被用作脓毒症的辅助治疗,旨在降低活性氧的水平。然而,研究发现这些药物无效,目前不推荐使用。[184]Szakmany T, Hauser B, Radermacher P. N-acetylcysteine for sepsis and systemic inflammatory response in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;(9):CD006616.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD006616.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22972094?tool=bestpractice.com
标准 ICU 支持治疗
所有脓毒症患者都应当考虑入住加护病房或 ICU。[55]Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 8;345(19):1368-77.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa010307#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11794169?tool=bestpractice.com[160]Hollenberg SM, Ahrens TS, Annane D, et al. Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adult patients; 2004 update. Crit Care Med. 2004 Sep;32(9):1928-48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15343024?tool=bestpractice.com
一般重症治疗措施包括:使用组胺 H2 受体拮抗剂或质子泵抑制剂预防应激性溃疡(在有消化道出血风险的患者中)、预防深静脉血栓(通过使用肝素和弹力袜)、肠内或胃肠外营养和血糖控制。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[113]Trzeciak S, Dellinger RP. Other supportive therapies in sepsis: an evidence-based review. Crit Care Med. 2004 Nov;32(suppl 11):S571-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15542966?tool=bestpractice.com[185]Nguyen HB, Rivers EP, Abrahamian FM, et al. Severe sepsis and septic shock: review of the literature and emergency department management guidelines. Ann Emerg Med. 2006 Jul;48(1):28-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16781920?tool=bestpractice.com
可能需要输注浓缩细胞。尽管在早期以目标为导向的治疗研究中,输血的目标血红蛋白浓度是>100 g/L (10 g/dL),但是目前建议使用较低的阈值,即 70 g/L (7 g/dL)。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com 这样做的原因包括资源利用以及针对普通危重病人群的多项研究显示,更高的血红蛋白阈值相对于较低的血红蛋白阈值没有改善,[159]Holst LB, Haase N, Wetterslev J, et al; TRISS Trial Group; Scandinavian Critical Care Trials Group. Lower versus higher hemoglobin threshold for transfusion in septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2014 Oct 9;371(15):1381-91.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1406617#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25270275?tool=bestpractice.com 以及与大量输血有关的潜在危害。[186]Hébert PC, Wells G, Blajchman MA, et al. A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. N Engl J Med. 1999 Feb 11;340(6):409-17.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199902113400601#t=articleTophttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9971864?tool=bestpractice.com 某些情况下可能有必要维持较高的血红蛋白水平(心肌缺血、重度低氧血症、急性出血、紫绀型心脏病或乳酸性酸中毒)。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com 在初始复苏阶段,特别是应用早期目标导向治疗时,≥30% 的较高红细胞压积可能是合适的。[55]Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001 Nov 8;345(19):1368-77.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa010307#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11794169?tool=bestpractice.com
需要长期通气支持的患者应使用最小吸气峰压 (<30 cmH₂O) 进行肺保护性通气,并保持高碳酸血症,以限制肺损伤。[187]The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000 May 4;342(18):1301-8.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200005043421801#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10793162?tool=bestpractice.com 应调整 FiO₂ 至最低有效水平,以防止氧中毒并保持中心静脉压张力。应将患者置于半卧位,头部抬高 30° 到 45°。[93]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock: 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-017-4683-6http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com
气管插管的动画演示