美国每年约有 9000~11,500 例侵袭性 A 族链球菌疾病发病。[15]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. GAS frequently asked questions. May 2014. http://www.cdc.gov (last accessed 9 January 2017).http://www.cdc.gov/groupAstrep/about/faqs.html约三分之一的 A 族链球菌感染可发生侵袭性感染,估计发病率为3.5/10万。[16]Darenberg J, Luca-Harari B, Jasir A, et al. Molecular and clinical characteristics of invasive group A streptococcal infections in Sweden. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:450-458.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/45/4/450.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17638193?tool=bestpractice.com[17]Lamagni TL, Darenberg J, Luca-Harari B, et al. Epidemiology of severe Streptococcus pyogenes disease in Europe. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:2359-2367.http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/content/full/46/7/2359http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18463210?tool=bestpractice.com
自 20 世纪 80 年代起,北美和欧洲报告 A 族链球菌侵袭性感染频率升高。[18]Katz AR, Morens DM. Severe streptococcal infections in historical perspective. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;14:298-307.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1571445?tool=bestpractice.com[19]Stevens DL, Tanner MH, Winship J, et al. Severe group A streptococcal infections associated with a shock-like syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2659990?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Hoge CW, Schwartz DF, Talkington DF, et al. The changing epidemiology of invasive group A streptococcal infections and the emergence of streptococcal toxic shock-like syndrome: a retrospective population-based study. JAMA. 1993;269:384-389 (erratum in: JAMA 1993;269:1638).http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8418346?tool=bestpractice.com[21]Wheeler MC, Roe MH, Kaplan EL, et al. Outbreak of group A streptococcus septicemia in children: clinical, epidemiologic, and microbiological correlates. JAMA. 1991;266:533-537.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2061980?tool=bestpractice.com[22]Stevens DL. Streptococcal toxic-shock syndrome: spectrum of disease, pathogenesis, and new concepts in treatment. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995;1:69-78.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2626872/?tool=pubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8903167?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Stevens DL. The toxic shock syndromes. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1996;10:727-746.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8958166?tool=bestpractice.com[24]Gaworzewska ET, Coleman G. Correspondence: group A streptococcal infections and a toxic shock-like syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1989;321:1546.[25]Schwartz B, Facklam RR, Brieman RF. Changing epidemiology of group A streptococcal infection in the USA. Lancet. 1990;336:1167-1171.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1978035?tool=bestpractice.com三分之一的 A 族链球菌感染患者的体征与 TSS 一致。[26]Ekelund K, Skinhoj P, Madsen J, et al. Reemergence of emm1 and a changed superantigen profile for group A streptococci causing invasive infections: results from a nationwide study. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43:1789-1796.http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/content/full/43/4/1789http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15815000?tool=bestpractice.com[27]Svensson N, Oberg S, Henriques B, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Sweden in 1994 and 1995: epidemiology and clinical spectrum. Scand J Infect Dis. 2000;32:609-614.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11200369?tool=bestpractice.com另外一个病例系列报道称,坏死性筋膜炎患者有一半发生 TSS。[28]Kaul R, McGeer A, Low DE, et al. Population-based surveillance for group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis: clinical features, prognostic indicators, and microbiological analysis of seventy-seven cases. Am J Med. 1997;103:18-24.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9236481?tool=bestpractice.com所有年龄段的人群均可感染,多数并无基础性疾病。[25]Schwartz B, Facklam RR, Brieman RF. Changing epidemiology of group A streptococcal infection in the USA. Lancet. 1990;336:1167-1171.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1978035?tool=bestpractice.com约 85% 的侵袭性感染为社区散发, 10% 为医源性感染,4% 为长期护理机构居住者,1% 与感染者接触而发生。[29]Davies HD, McGeer A, Schwartz B, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:547-554.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199608223350803http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8684408?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Demers B, Simor AE, Vellend H, et al. Severe invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada: 1987-1991. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;16:792-800.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8329511?tool=bestpractice.com一项基于人群的研究发现,家庭接触者中发生二代感染率约为 2.9/1000。[29]Davies HD, McGeer A, Schwartz B, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:547-554.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199608223350803http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8684408?tool=bestpractice.com有报道称在先证病例发病数小时至数周内,家庭内和医院人员接触者即可发生二代侵袭性感染。[29]Davies HD, McGeer A, Schwartz B, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:547-554.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199608223350803http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8684408?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Demers B, Simor AE, Vellend H, et al. Severe invasive group A streptococcal infections in Ontario, Canada: 1987-1991. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;16:792-800.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8329511?tool=bestpractice.com[31]O'Brien KL, Levine OS, Schwartz B. The changing epidemiology of group A streptococcus infections. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis. 1997;8:10-16.[32]Schwartz B, Elliot JA, Butler JC, et al. Clusters of invasive group A streptococcal infections in family, hospital, and nursing home settings. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15:277-284.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1520763?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Kakis A, Gibbs L, Eguia J, et al. An outbreak of group A streptococcal infection among health care workers. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:1353-1359.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/11/1353.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12439798?tool=bestpractice.com 有报道称在密闭环境中发生过暴发性感染,如医院、军事基地和疗养院。[32]Schwartz B, Elliot JA, Butler JC, et al. Clusters of invasive group A streptococcal infections in family, hospital, and nursing home settings. Clin Infect Dis. 1992;15:277-284.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1520763?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Kakis A, Gibbs L, Eguia J, et al. An outbreak of group A streptococcal infection among health care workers. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35:1353-1359.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/35/11/1353.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12439798?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Auerbach SB, Schwartz B, Williams D, et al. Outbreak of invasive group A streptococcal infections in a nursing home: lessons on prevention and control. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1017-1022.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1580705?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Hohenboken JJ, Anderson F, Kaplan EL. Invasive group A streptococcal (GAS) serotype M-1 outbreak in a long-term care facility (LTCF) with mortality. Paper presented at: 34th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 1994; Orlando, FL.[36]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nosocomial group A streptococcal infections associated with asymptomatic health-care workers: Maryland and California, 1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999;48:163-166.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00056612.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10079063?tool=bestpractice.com
多数葡萄球菌病例为对甲氧西林敏感 (MSSA) 的金黄色葡萄球菌引起。但毒性更强的社区相关性抗甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌 (MRSA) TSS 发病率正在不断升高。[37]Durand G, Bes M, Meugnier H, et al. Detection of new methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clones containing the toxic shock syndrome toxin 1 gene responsible for hospital- and community-acquired infections in France. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44:847-853 (erratum at: J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44:3053).http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/content/full/44/3/847http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16517865?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Fey PD, Said-Salim B, Rupp ME, et al. Comparative molecular analysis of community- or hospital-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47:196-203.http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/full/47/1/196http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12499191?tool=bestpractice.com葡萄球菌 TSS 首次确认于 1980 年,卫生棉使用与其症状有关。[39]Todd J, Fishaut M, Kapral F, et al. Toxic-shock syndrome associated with phage-group-I staphylococci. Lancet. 1978;2:1116-1118.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/82681?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Centers for Disease Control. Update: toxic shock syndrome, United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1983;32:398-400.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6410169?tool=bestpractice.com近 20 年经期 TSS 的发病率有所下降。[41]Hajjeh RA, Reingold A, Weil A, et al. Toxic shock syndrome in the United States: surveillance update, 1979-1996. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5:807-810.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2640799/pdf/10603216.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10603216?tool=bestpractice.com当前非经期病例占所有葡萄球菌 TSS 病例的 55%。[41]Hajjeh RA, Reingold A, Weil A, et al. Toxic shock syndrome in the United States: surveillance update, 1979-1996. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5:807-810.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2640799/pdf/10603216.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10603216?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Gaventa S, Reingold AL, Hightower AW, et al. Active surveillance for toxic shock syndrome in the United States, 1986. Rev Infect Dis. 1989;11(suppl 1):S28-S34.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2928646?tool=bestpractice.com非经期病例更常见于非白人老年女性中,但也可发生于男性,且与葡萄球菌脓肿或近期手术有关。[4]Reingold AL, Hargrett NT, Shands KN, et al. Toxic shock syndrome surveillance in the United States, 1980 to 1981. Ann Intern Med. 1982;96:875-880.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7091960?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Hajjeh RA, Reingold A, Weil A, et al. Toxic shock syndrome in the United States: surveillance update, 1979-1996. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5:807-810.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2640799/pdf/10603216.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10603216?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Schwartz B, Gaventa S, Broome CV, et al. Nonmenstrual toxic shock syndrome associated with barrier contraceptives: report of a case-control study. Rev Infect Dis. 1989;11(suppl 1):S43-S48.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2928652?tool=bestpractice.com产后 TSS 已被确认可在阴道分娩与剖腹产后发生,也可由各种产后感染引起。