SAH 的特点为突发剧烈头痛。此为最重要的诊断线索,常被描述为“曾经有过的最严重头痛”。
病史和体格检查
最重要的应当是紧急评估意识状态以及是否需要心肺复苏和/或机械通气。[34]Axelrod KA, Diringer MN. Medical management of subarachnoid hemorrhage. In: Bhardwaj A, Alkayed NJ, Kirsch JR, et al, eds. Acute stroke: bench to bedside. New York, NY: Informa Healthcare; 2006. 病史采集(由患者和/或亲属提供)可能显示有吸烟、可卡因滥用、高血压、SAH 家族史、结缔组织病或常染色体显性遗传型多囊肾病等危险因素。应采用格拉斯哥昏迷量表 (Glasgow Coma Scale, GCS) 评估意识水平。体格检查可能正常,或者发现有意识水平改变、易激惹、精神状态异常、脑膜刺激征或局灶定位体征。就诊时意识水平低及抽搐是发生误吸的危险因素。较大的出血负担以及存在硬膜下血肿可导致动脉瘤破裂后出现癫痫发作。[35]Ibrahim GM, Fallah A, Macdonald RL. Clinical, laboratory, and radiographic predictors of the occurrence of seizures following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg. 2013 Aug;119(2):347-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23581590?tool=bestpractice.com 畏光、恶心、呕吐是常见的症状。需行全面的神经系统检查,特别需要注意瞳孔反应。可出现眼内出血以及颅神经麻痹。单侧瞳孔放大和瞳孔对光反射消失可能提示脑疝,由脑实质内出血或脑积水引起的颅内压升高所致。入院时神经功能状态差似乎预示着心脏功能异常,该心脏功能异常被认为是继发于交感神经激活过度。[36]Tung P, Kopelnik A, Banki N, et al. Predictors of neurocardiogenic injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke. 2004 Feb;35(2):548-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14739408?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Zaroff JG, Rordorf GA, Newell JB, et al. Cardiac outcome in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage and electrocardiographic abnormalities. Neurosurgery. 1999 Jan;44(1):34-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9894961?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Zaroff JG, Rordorf GA, Ogilvy CS, et al. Regional patterns of left ventricular systolic dysfunction after subarachnoid hemorrhage: evidence for neurally mediated cardiac injury. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2000 Aug;13(8):774-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10936822?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Jain R, Deveikis J, Thompson BG. Management of patients with stunned myocardium associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2004 Jan;25(1):126-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14729541?tool=bestpractice.com 应当密切观察生命体征,包括血压、心率和心律以及呼吸频率。[40]Al-Shahi R, White PM, Davenport RJ, et al. Clinical review: subarachnoid haemorrhage. BMJ. 2006 Jul 29;333(7561):235-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16873858?tool=bestpractice.com
血清检测和心电图 (ECG)
在初始病情检查时,除了检测血清肌钙蛋白 I,还应检查全血细胞计数 (FBC)、血清电解质和凝血功能。半数患者在入院时心电图检查异常。[41]Solenski NJ, Haley EC Jr, Kassell NF, et al. Medical complications of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a report of the multicenter, cooperative aneurysm study. Participants of the Multicenter Cooperative Aneurysm Study. Crit Care Med. 1995 Jun;23(6):1007-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7774210?tool=bestpractice.com 异常包括心律失常、QTc 延长以及 ST 段/T 波异常。
CT 和腰椎穿刺 (LP) 检查
如果基于突发严重头痛史而怀疑 SAH,就足以要求进行急诊头颅 CT 平扫。
应当行薄层 (3-5 mm) 扫描;否则可能会漏诊小而稀薄的血液积聚。蛛网膜下腔的血液显示为基底池、大脑裂和脑沟内的高密度信号(白色)。[42]Latchaw RE, Silva P, Falcone SF. The role of CT following aneurysmal rupture. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1997 Nov;7(4):693-708.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9336494?tool=bestpractice.com CT 对 SAH 的识别取决于血液密度、SAH 的量以及从发作至实施 CT 的时间。蛛网膜下腔内的少量出血可能被漏诊,血红蛋白低于 100 g/L (10 g/dL) 的血液在 CT 上可能无法显示。[42]Latchaw RE, Silva P, Falcone SF. The role of CT following aneurysmal rupture. Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 1997 Nov;7(4):693-708.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9336494?tool=bestpractice.com 但是,第三代 CT 扫描仪的出现显著改善了识别蛛网膜下腔出血的敏感性,在头痛发作 6 小时内实施并由经验丰富的神经放射科医生进行解读的情况下,其敏感性可达到 100%。[43]Perry JJ, Stiell IG, Sivilotti ML, et al. Sensitivity of computed tomography performed within six hours of onset of headache for diagnosis of subarachnoid haemorrhage: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2011 Jul 18;343:d4277.https://www.bmj.com/content/343/bmj.d4277.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21768192?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Backes D, Rinkel GJ, Kemperman H, et al. Time-dependent test characteristics of head computed tomography in patients suspected of nontraumatic subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke. 2012 Aug;43(8):2115-9.https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.658880http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22821609?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Dubosh NM, Bellolio MF, Rabinstein AA, et al. Sensitivity of early brain computed tomography to exclude aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2016 Mar;47(3):750-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26797666?tool=bestpractice.com依据 CT 所示出血聚集的形式(脑裂内浓聚)或脑实质血肿,可预测动脉瘤破裂的位置,当并不总是准确。[46]van der Jagt M, Hasan D, Bijvoet HW, et al. Validity of prediction of the site of ruptured intracranial aneurysms with CT. Neurology. 1999 Jan 1;52(1):34-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9921845?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 脑部 CT 显示大脑后动脉动脉瘤破裂导致的蛛网膜下腔出血 (1/2)由 Dr Salah Keyrouz 提供;经授权后使用 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 脑部 CT 显示大脑后动脉动脉瘤破裂导致的蛛网膜下腔出血 (2/2)由 Dr Salah Keyrouz 提供;经授权后使用 [Citation ends].
虽然新型 CT 扫描仪的敏感性较高,但由于漏诊或延迟诊断,导致动脉瘤性 SAH 的患病率极高。因此,许多医生建议,如果 CT 扫描未发现 SAH 或者如果患者在出现症状后 24 小时及之后就诊且 CT 结果不确定,则应进行腰椎穿刺。应留取四管脑脊液 (CSF) 并肉眼观察是否含血。对 1 至 4 管脑脊液进行红细胞连续计数检测,并不足以准确鉴别 SAH 与创伤性腰椎穿刺。仅用肉眼识别脑脊液黄染并不可靠。采用分光光度计分析血红蛋白降解产物是最可靠的。[47]Cruickshank A, Auld P, Beetham R, et al; UK NEQAS Specialist Advisory Group for EQA of CSF Proteins and Biochemistry. Revised national guidelines for analysis of cerebrospinal fluid for bilirubin in suspected subarachnoid haemorrhage. Ann Clin Biochem. 2008 May;45(Pt 3):238-44.http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1258/acb.2008.007257http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18482910?tool=bestpractice.com 蛛网膜下腔内的 RBC 在出血 12 小时后开始溶解。溶解的 RBC 会使脑脊液黄染(淡黄色)。然而,脑脊液蛋白含量高或消毒用的碘剂污染可引起 CSF 看似黄染。[48]Wijdicks EF, Kallmes DF, Manno EM, et al. Subarachnoid hemorrhage: neurointensive care and aneurysm repair. Mayo Clin Proc. 2005 Apr;80(4):550-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15819296?tool=bestpractice.com
成人诊断性腰椎穿刺的动画演示
进一步影像学检查
经 CT 或 LP 证实 SAH 后,应行进一步的影像学检查。数字减影血管造影 (digital subtraction angiography, DSA) 是用于诊断动脉瘤的最精确成像技术。CT 血管造影 (CT angiography, CTA) 和磁共振血管成像 (magnetic resonance angiography, MRA) 是可与 DSA 相当的无创成像技术。[55]Chappell ET, Moure FC, Good MC. Comparison of computed tomographic angiography with digital subtraction angiography in the diagnosis of cerebral aneurysms: a meta-analysis. Neurosurgery. 2003 Mar;52(3):624-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12590688?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Hoh BL, Cheung AC, Rabinov JD, et al. Results of a prospective protocol of computed tomographic angiography in place of catheter angiography as the only diagnostic and pretreatment planning study for cerebral aneurysms by a combined neurovascular team. Neurosurgery. 2004 Jun;54(6):1329-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15157289?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Jayaraman MV, Mayo-Smith WW, Tung GA, et al. Detection of intracranial aneurysms: multi-detector row CT angiography compared with DSA. Radiology. 2004 Feb;230(2):510-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14699177?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Kouskouras C, Charitanti A, Giavroglou C, et al. Intracranial aneurysms: evaluation using CTA and MRA. Correlation with DSA and intraoperative findings. Neuroradiology. 2004 Oct;46(10):842-50.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15448952?tool=bestpractice.com CTA 已被作为诊断动脉瘤的唯一方法,[56]Hoh BL, Cheung AC, Rabinov JD, et al. Results of a prospective protocol of computed tomographic angiography in place of catheter angiography as the only diagnostic and pretreatment planning study for cerebral aneurysms by a combined neurovascular team. Neurosurgery. 2004 Jun;54(6):1329-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15157289?tool=bestpractice.com 但无论 CTA 还是 MRA 都尚未广泛取代 DSA。一项 meta 分析显示 CTA 的敏感性为 92.7%,特异性为 77.2%,[55]Chappell ET, Moure FC, Good MC. Comparison of computed tomographic angiography with digital subtraction angiography in the diagnosis of cerebral aneurysms: a meta-analysis. Neurosurgery. 2003 Mar;52(3):624-31.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12590688?tool=bestpractice.com[59]van Gelder JM. Computed tomographic angiography for detecting cerebral aneurysms: implications of aneurysm size distribution for the sensitivity, specificity, and likelihood ratios. Neurosurgery. 2003 Sep;53(3):597-605.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12943576?tool=bestpractice.com 但是另一报告指出敏感性和特异性超过 95%,尤其在应用新一代的多探头仪器时。[60]Menke J, Larsen J, Kallenberg K. Diagnosing cerebral aneurysms by computed tomographic angiography: meta-analysis. Ann Neurol. 2011 Apr;69(4):646-54.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21391230?tool=bestpractice.com 类似地,meta 分析显示 MRA 的敏感性为 95%,特异性为 89%。[61]Sailer AM, Wagemans BA, Nelemans PJ, et al. Diagnosing intracranial aneurysms with MR angiography: systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2014 Jan;45(1):119-26.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24326447?tool=bestpractice.com