对于急性和慢性硬膜下血肿,神经外科医师采取不同的治疗方案。 综合来看,对于急性硬膜下血肿患者治疗方案的决策标准,要基于神经系统症状、体征及影像学表现。 亚急性硬膜下血肿与慢性硬膜下血肿的处理原则相同,慢加急性硬膜下血肿与急性硬膜下血肿处理原则相同。
纠正凝血功能异常
很多重度颅脑损伤的患者会出现凝血功能异常,需要纠正其凝血功能。[29]Cortiana M, Zagara G, Fava S, et al. Coagulation abnormalities in patients with head injury. J Neurosurg Sci. 1986 Jul-Sep;30(3):133-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3783267?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Goodnight SH, Kenoyer G, Rapaport SI, et al. Defibrination after brain-tissue destruction: A serious complication of head injury. N Engl J Med. 1974 May 9;290(19):1043-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4821906?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Harhangi BS, Kompanje EJ, Leebeek FW, et al. Coagulation disorders after traumatic brain injury. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2008 Feb;150(2):165-75;discussion 175.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18166989?tool=bestpractice.com 所有抗凝患者应停用其抗血小板或抗凝制剂和/或进行逆转。对所有患者,应随访连续的凝血酶原时间、部分凝血活酶时间、国际标准化比值、血小板及纤维蛋白原水平。
治疗硬膜下血肿的医生应知晓以凝血酶或凝血因子 Xa 为靶点的新型抗凝药物。此类直接口服抗凝药物 (direct oral anticoagulant, DOAC) 包括:达比加群、利伐沙班、阿哌沙班和依度沙班。与华法林相比,DOAC 具有多种优势,包括出现危及生命的血肿的风险较低,这是更加广泛地使用它们的原因。当对使用 DOAC 患者的硬膜下血肿进行治疗时,应鼓励医生就可能的逆转治疗选择咨询其血液科同事。[32]Morais J, De Caterina R. Stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation: a clinical perspective on trials of the novel oral anticoagulants. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 2016 Apr;30(2):201-14.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4858545/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26780749?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Brem E, Koyfman A, Foran M. Review of recently approved alternatives to anticoagulation with warfarin for emergency clinicians. J Emerg Med. 2013 Jul;45(1):143-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23375217?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Frontera JA, Lewin JJ 3rd, Rabinstein AA, et al. Guideline for reversal of antithrombotics in intracranial hemorrhage: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society and Society of Critical Care Medicine. Neurocrit Care. 2016 Feb;24(1):6-46.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26714677?tool=bestpractice.com
颅内压增高的处理
颅内压增高的患者,有相关的标准治疗原则。 遵循传统颅脑外伤治疗原则十分重要,包括维持脑灌注压在60~70mmHg且控制颅内压<20mmHg(成年人)。[35]Rosner MJ, Rosner SD, Johnson AH. Cerebral perfusion pressure: management protocol and clinical results. J Neurosurg. 1995 Dec;83(6):949-62.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7490638?tool=bestpractice.com 对于急性硬膜下血肿、颅内压增高的患者,应考虑行外科穿刺引流,有一部分患者为小体积硬膜下血肿,其神经系统症状可能源于其他损伤,如脑挫伤或弥漫性轴索损伤。 对于此类患者,外科治疗不作为首选。
首选降低颅内压治疗为抬高床头30°,如果合并颈椎不稳定或颈椎外伤,可采取反Trendelenberg体位。[36]Feldman Z, Kanter MJ, Robertson CS, et al. Effect of head elevation on intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral blood flow in head-injured patients. J Neurosurg. 1992 Feb;76(2):207-11.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1730949?tool=bestpractice.com 疼痛和躁动能增加颅内压力,所以镇静剂和镇痛药是有用的。[37]Kelly DF, Goodale DB, Williams J, et al. Propofol in the treatment of moderate and severe head injury: a randomized, prospective double-blinded pilot trial. J Neurosurg. 1999 Jun;90(6):1042-52.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10350250?tool=bestpractice.com 对气管插管患者给予麻醉药可能减轻呼吸作用的影响。[38]Kerr ME, Sereika SM, Orndoff P, et al. Effect of neuromuscular blockers and opiates on the cerebrovascular response to endotracheal suctioning in adults with severe head injuries. Am J Crit Care. 1998 May;7(3):205-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9579247?tool=bestpractice.com 采取过度通气,使 pCO₂ 处于 30-35 mmHg(采用连续动脉血气进行监测)有益于降低颅内压,但只建议将其作为一种临时措施,因为长期使用可能导致脑血管收缩,使血流量降低。[39]Kinoshita K. Traumatic brain injury: pathophysiology for neurocritical care. J Intensive Care. 2016 Apr 27;4:29.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4847183/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27123305?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Oertel M, Kelly DF, Lee JH, et al. Efficacy of hyperventilation, blood pressure elevation, and metabolic suppression therapy in controlling intracranial pressure after head injury. J Neurosurg. 2002 Nov;97(5):1045-53.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12450025?tool=bestpractice.com
对于减轻颅内压的次选治疗方案是高渗透性治疗,使用浓度 3.0%-23.4% 的高渗盐水,依据血清钠浓度 155 mmol/L 的上限,限制给药剂量。[5]Fisher B, Thomas D, Peterson B. Hypertonic saline lowers raised intracranial pressure in children after head trauma. J Neurosurg Anesthesiol. 1992 Jan;4(1):4-10.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15815431?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Qureshi AI, Suarez JI, Bhardwaj A, et al. Use of hypertonic (3%) saline/acetate infusion in the treatment of cerebral edema: Effect on intracranial pressure and lateral displacement of the brain. Crit Care Med. 1998 Mar;26(3):440-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9504569?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Munar F, Ferrer AM, de Nadal M, et al. Cerebral hemodynamic effects of 7.2% hypertonic saline in patients with head injury and raised intracranial pressure. J Neurotrauma. 2000 Jan;17(1):41-51.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10674757?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Rangel-Castilla L, Gopinath S, Robertson CS. Management of intracranial hypertension. Neurol Clin. 2008 May;26(2):521-41.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2452989/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18514825?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Ragland J, Lee K. Critical care management and monitoring of intracranial pressure. J Neurocrit Care. 2016 Dec 28; 9(2):105-12.https://www.e-jnc.org/journal/view.php?number=245[45]Lewandowski-Belfer JJ, Patel AV, Darracott RM, et al. Safety and efficacy of repeated doses of 14.6 or 23.4% hypertonic saline for refractory intracranial hypertension. Neurocrit Care. 2014 Jun;20(3):436-42.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24026522?tool=bestpractice.com 此外,还可采用甘露醇等渗透性利尿药,[46]Mendelow AD, Teasdale GM, Russell T, et al. Effect of mannitol on cerebral blood flow and cerebral perfusion pressure in human head injury. J Neurosurg. 1985 Jul;63(1):43-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3925092?tool=bestpractice.com 但如果血清渗透压间隙超过 18-20 mOsm/kg,应避免使用。[47]Erstad B. Critical care pharmacotherapy. Lenexa, KS: American College of Clinical Pharmacy; 2016. 部分专家还建议,如果要考虑使用甘露醇,血清渗透压不应超过 320 mOsm/kg。[48]García-Morales EJ, Cariappa R, Parvin CA, et al. Osmole gap in neurologic-neurosurgical intensive care unit: Its normal value, calculation, and relationship with mannitol serum concentrations. Crit Care Med. 2004 Apr;32(4):986-91.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15071390?tool=bestpractice.com
难治性颅内压增高的治疗选择包括持续给予戊巴比妥药物使患者处于药物昏迷状态(需持续脑电图 [EEG] 监测),[49]Eisenberg HM, Frankowski RF, Contant CF, et al. High-dose barbiturate control of elevated intracranial pressure in patients with severe head injury. J Neurosurg. 1988 Jul;69(1):15-23.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3288723?tool=bestpractice.com 通过血管内降温或外用降温毯诱导低体温,[50]Tokutomi T, Morimoto K, Miyagi T, et al. Optimal temperature for the management of severe traumatic brain injury: effect of hypothermia on intracranial pressure, systemic and intracranial hemodynamics, and metabolism. Neurosurgery. 2003 Jan;52(1):102-11;discussion 111-2.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12493106?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Polderman KH, Tjong Tjin Joe R, Peerdeman SM, et al. Effects of therapeutic hypothermia on intracranial pressure and outcome in patients with severe head injury. Intensive Care Med. 2002 Nov;28(11):1563-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12415442?tool=bestpractice.com[52]Clifton GL, Coffey CS, Fourwinds S, et al. Early induction of hypothermia for evacuated intracranial hematomas: a post hoc analysis of two clinical trials. J Neurosurg. 2012 Oct;117(4):714-20.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22839656?tool=bestpractice.com 以及偏侧颅骨切除减压术。[53]Timofeev I, Czosnyka M, Nortje J, et al. Effect of decompressive craniectomy on intracranial pressure and cerebrospinal compensation following traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg. 2008 Jan;108(1):66-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18173312?tool=bestpractice.com[54]Chibbaro S, Tacconi L. Role of decompressive craniectomy in the management of severe head injury with refractory cerebral edema and intractable intracranial pressure. Our experience with 48 cases. Surg Neurol. 2007 Dec;68(6):632-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17765952?tool=bestpractice.com
急性硬膜下血肿
小面积硬膜下血肿可能与其他颅内血肿相关,需控制颅内压的增高或给予手术清除治疗。小面积硬膜下血肿偶尔可能导致严重的脑水肿或神经功能恶化。因此应根据出血量及临床症状/体征进行治疗。对于格拉斯哥昏迷量表 (GCS)<9 分的患者,要进行颅内压 (ICP) 监测(通过采用脑室切开术、蛛网膜下腔栓 [subarachnoid bolt] 或脑实质内监测进行)。可评估其他有助于指导治疗的生理学指标,包括通过目标局灶脑组织区域的氧分压监测脑氧合情况或者通过颈静脉球监测全脑氧合情况;脑血灌注压;以及通过持续的脑电图监测癫痫发作,在必要时这还有助于指导巴比妥昏迷疗法。可请癫痫专科医师会诊,以解读 EEG 结果。[55]Procaccio F, Polo A, Lanteri P, et al. Electrophysiologic monitoring in neurointensive care. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2001 Apr;7(2):74-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11373514?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Mayberg TS, Lam AM. Jugular bulb oximetry for the monitoring of cerebral blood flow and metabolism. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 1996 Oct;7(4):755-65.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8905787?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Hoelper BM, Alessandri B, Heimann A, et al. Brain oxygen monitoring: in-vitro accuracy, long-term drift and response-time of Licox- and Neurotrend sensors. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2005 Jul;147(7):767-74;discussion 774.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15889319?tool=bestpractice.com
对于没有明显中线移位或脑池受压表现和无严重的神经功能障碍(比头痛严重)的小体积急性硬膜下血肿的患者,保守治疗是比较适宜的。 通常情况下,包含的患者为:[58]Smith JS, Chang EF, Rosenthal G, et al. The role of early follow-up computed tomography imaging in the management of traumatic brain injury patients with intracranial hemorrhage. J Trauma. 2007 Jul;63(1):75-82.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17622872?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Oertel M, Kelly DF, McArthur D, et al. Progressive hemorrhage after head trauma: predictors and consequences of the evolving injury. J Neurosurg. 2002 Jan;96(1):109-16.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11794591?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Brown CV, Weng J, Oh D, et al. Does routine serial computed tomography of the head influence management of traumatic brain injury? A prospective evaluation. J Trauma. 2004 Nov;57(5):939-43.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15580014?tool=bestpractice.com
对于合并重度脑肿胀或脑挫裂伤的急性硬膜下血肿患者,可采取标准骨瓣开颅术、偏侧颅骨切除减压术和硬膜重建术等外科治疗方式。 外科治疗的适应症为:[61]Bullock MR, Chesnut R, Ghajar J, et al; Surgical Management of Traumatic Brain Injury Author Group. Surgical management of acute subdural hematomas. Neurosurgery. 2006 Mar;58(suppl 3):S16-24;discussion Si-iv.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16710968?tool=bestpractice.com
硬膜下血肿>10mm或中线移位>5mm,可为任何GCS。
从外伤出现至转运到急诊室,GCS下降≥2分,同时总分<9分,硬膜下血肿<10mm,中线移位<5mm。
GCS <9分,硬膜下血肿<10mm,中线移位<5mm,双侧瞳孔不等大或固定。
GCS <9分,硬膜下血肿<10mm,中线移位<5mm,颅内压>20mmHg。
慢性硬膜下血肿
慢性硬膜下血肿有多种不同的治疗方式。
与急性硬膜下血肿相似,慢性硬膜下血肿有相同的保守治疗指征,如上所述。
与急性硬膜下血肿相同,慢性硬膜下血肿有相同的手术适应证,还包括术后复发的硬膜下血肿。 外科手术包括额颞开颅术、小骨窗开颅灌洗或钻孔引流术。[62]Ibrahim I, Maarrawi J, Jouanneau E, et al. Evacuation of chronic subdural hematomas with the Twist-Drill technique: Results of a randomized prospective study comparing 48-h and 96-h drainage duration [in French]. Neurochirurgie. 2010 Feb;56(1):23-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20053413?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Liu W, Bakker NA, Groen RJ. Chronic subdural hematoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis of surgical procedures. J Neurosurg. 2014 Sep;121(3):665-73.http://thejns.org/doi/full/10.3171/2014.5.JNS132715http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24995782?tool=bestpractice.com 较新的血肿清除方法包括硬膜下排空阀门系统 (subdural evacuating port system)。[64]Hoffman H, Ziechmann R, Beutler T, et al. First-line management of chronic subdural hematoma with the subdural evacuating port system: institutional experience and predictors of outcomes. J Clin Neurosci. 2018 Apr;50:221-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29428265?tool=bestpractice.com 治疗复发性硬膜下血肿的积液可以行硬膜下-腹膜分流术。
使用引流可以降低复发率和病死率,同时不增加并发症的发生率。[63]Liu W, Bakker NA, Groen RJ. Chronic subdural hematoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis of surgical procedures. J Neurosurg. 2014 Sep;121(3):665-73.http://thejns.org/doi/full/10.3171/2014.5.JNS132715http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24995782?tool=bestpractice.com[65]Santarius T, Kirkpatrick PJ, Ganesan D, et al. Use of drains versus no drains after burr-hole evacuation of chronic subdural haematoma: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009 Sep 26;374(9695):1067-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19782872?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How do external drains compare with no drains after burr-hole evacuation for chronic subdural hematoma?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1986/full显示答案 一个实验研究显示,48h引流与96h引流有相同的疗效,但并发症更少,但是该理论还需进一步论证才能应用于临床。[62]Ibrahim I, Maarrawi J, Jouanneau E, et al. Evacuation of chronic subdural hematomas with the Twist-Drill technique: Results of a randomized prospective study comparing 48-h and 96-h drainage duration [in French]. Neurochirurgie. 2010 Feb;56(1):23-7.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20053413?tool=bestpractice.com
对于慢加急性硬膜下血肿或经钻孔引流术治疗失败的患者,可采取小骨窗开颅灌洗或标准额颞开颅术清除血肿(可术中放置或不放置引流管)。 研究显示置管引流的复发率较低。[65]Santarius T, Kirkpatrick PJ, Ganesan D, et al. Use of drains versus no drains after burr-hole evacuation of chronic subdural haematoma: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009 Sep 26;374(9695):1067-73.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19782872?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How do external drains compare with no drains after burr-hole evacuation for chronic subdural hematoma?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1986/full显示答案
双侧硬膜下血肿
双侧硬膜下血肿的治疗比单侧硬膜下血肿更加复杂,并且慢性双侧硬膜下血肿的复发率明显更高。总的来说,没有明确的治疗方案。如果两个血肿大小相同,许多神经外科医生同时治疗双侧;如果两个血肿不对称,许多神经外科医生仅治疗较大或有症状的那一侧。一项有趣的研究对接受单侧手术与接受双侧手术治疗的双侧硬膜下血肿患者进行了比较。接受单侧治疗患者的复发率几乎是接受双侧治疗患者的 2 倍 (21.6% vs 11.5%)。[28]Andersen-Ranberg NC, Poulsen FR, Bergholt B, et al. Bilateral chronic subdural hematoma: unilateral or bilateral drainage? J Neurosurg. 2017 Jun;126(6):1905-11.http://thejns.org/doi/full/10.3171/2016.4.JNS152642http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27392267?tool=bestpractice.com 尽管该项研究建议采用更积极的方法治疗双侧硬膜下血肿,但在指南建立之前,仍需进行更多研究。
伴随对侧硬膜外血肿的单侧硬膜下血肿
治疗与外伤有关的急性硬膜下血肿时,识别潜在的对侧硬膜外血肿至关重要。尽管罕见,但这种情况可能危及生命。在通过手术清除来缓解对硬膜下血肿的压迫时,急性硬膜下血肿对侧的小型硬膜外血肿可迅速扩大。如果最初未识别出来,可能在手术后才会发现扩张的硬膜外血肿,当移除无菌巾后,发现患者硬膜外血肿侧出现瞳孔散大。
处理这种情况的最佳办法为初始即识别急性硬膜下血肿对侧的小型硬膜外血肿。多数硬膜外血肿与穿过棘孔的颅骨骨折(造成棘孔处的脑膜中动脉损伤)有关。对于任何累及棘孔的颅骨骨折,都应提醒神经外科手术医生,可能出现这种情况。
如果急性硬膜下血肿的对侧存在硬膜外血肿,应考虑到排空硬膜下血肿后硬膜外血肿扩大的可能性。在这种情况下,可对患者进行体位摆放,以便可以迅速进行对侧开颅手术。
与脑室-腹腔分流术相关的硬膜下血肿
采用脑室-腹腔分流术的患者可能出现硬膜下血肿,其原因通常是“过度分流”- 去除过多脑脊液 (CSF),从而产生朝向硬膜下腔的生理学牵引力。在这种情况下,硬膜下血肿扩大导致脑内压增高,随后通过额外分流脑室系统的脑脊液 (CSF) 对此加以缓解。通过额外的脑脊液引流,脑室系统变得更小,而硬膜下血肿继续扩大。
治疗这种情况的初始重点在于阻碍通过脑室-腹腔分流的过多引流。如果分流为可调控的分流,建议将分流调整到最高设置。如果该设置不够高,无法停止额外引流,或者不能调整分流,可将分流远端移到身体外部,并连接到可以更好控制引流的床边收集系统,包括选择完全阻挡分流。
预防性抗癫痫治疗
对于急性硬膜下血肿患者,在就诊后,一般建议给予长达 7 天的预防性抗癫痫治疗。预防性抗癫痫治疗已被证明能够减少早期、创伤后癫痫的发作。左乙拉西坦和苯妥英具有相似的有效性,是当前指南的推荐药物。[66]Wilson CD, Burks JD, Rodgers RB, et al. Early and late posttraumatic epilepsy in the setting of traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis and review of antiepileptic management. World Neurosurg. 2018 Feb;110:e901-6.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29196247?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Brain Trauma Foundation. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, fourth edition. January 2017 [internet publication].https://braintrauma.org/guidelines/guidelines-for-the-management-of-severe-tbi-4th-ed#/:guideline/11-seizure-prophylaxis 对于尽管已给予抗癫痫药物但仍出现迟发性创伤后癫痫(损伤后最初 7 天之后出现的癫痫)或癫痫发作的患者,建议请神经内科医师会诊。在既往有急性硬膜下血肿且昏迷 7 天以上的患者中,迟发性创伤后癫痫的发生率最高。[68]Haltiner AM, Temkin NR, Dikmen SS. Risk of seizure recurrence after the first late posttraumatic seizure. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997 Aug;78(8):835-40.https://www.archives-pmr.org/article/S0003-9993(97)90196-9/pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9344302?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Winn HR. Management of head injury. Posttraumatic seizures. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 1991 Apr;2(2):425-35.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1821751?tool=bestpractice.com 据报告,在慢性硬膜下血肿患者中,新发癫痫发作的发病率为 3%-23%;然而,有关对此患者群使用预防性抗癫痫药物获益的数据存在争议,关于是否需使用常规预防,并没有明确的证据。[70]Branco PM, Ratilal BO, Costa J, et al. Antiepileptic drugs for preventing seizures in patients with chronic subdural hematoma. Curr Pharm Des. 2017;23(42):6442-5.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29076415?tool=bestpractice.com
抗癫痫药物适用于慢加急性硬膜下血肿患者或有癫痫发作病史的慢性硬膜下血肿患者。有些学者主张,对于手术清除慢性硬膜下血肿的患者,在术后给予预防性抗癫痫治疗,[71]Chen CW, Kuo JR, Lin HJ, et al. Early post-operative seizures after burr-hole drainage for chronic subdural hematoma: correlation with brain CT findings. J Clin Neurosci. 2004 Sep;11(7):706-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15337129?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,没有关于对慢性硬膜下血肿患者使用常规预防性抗癫痫药物的随机对照试验。[72]Ratilal BO, Pappamikail L, Costa J, et al. Anticonvulsants for preventing seizures in patients with chronic subdural haematoma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(6):CD004893.http://cochranelibrary-wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004893.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23744552?tool=bestpractice.com