在对包括霍乱在内的各种腹泻类疾病的防控中,高质量的涉水卫生设施和污水处理系统是最基本的公共卫生措施。 截至 1988 年,在南美洲的城市中,已有约 80% 的家庭可使用自来水和适当的环卫设施。 然而,这并未阻止霍乱横扫大陆并以 1% 的致死率感染超过 300,000 人。[31]Witt VM, Reiff FM. Environmental health conditions and cholera vulnerability in Latin America and the Caribbean. J Public Health Policy. 1991;12:450-463.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1802889?tool=bestpractice.com 若加氯消毒不充分,即使饮用处理后的自来水,也可导致疾病爆发。[17]Ries AA, Vugia DJ, Beingolea L, et al. Cholera in Piura, Peru: a modern urban epidemic. J Infect Dis. 1992;166:1429-1433.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1431259?tool=bestpractice.com
对市政供水系统进行加氯消毒以及采取卫生措施极为重要。 同时也需对本地水源进行煮沸或过滤处理。 通过公众集会、海报和媒体的方式加强群众健康教育也非常重要。 提倡政府采取确保供水安全的措施。 为应对难民做好准备,提供公厕并意识到积极进行疾病筛查的必要性,将有助于对疾病进行预防。
3 种通过 WHO 初审的口服疫苗为:Dukoral(商品名;由瑞典的 Valneva 生产)、Shanchol(商品名;由印度的 Shantha Biotechnics-Sanofi Pasteur 生产)和 Euvichol(商品名;由韩国的 Eubiologics 生产)。[32]Sinclair D, Abba K, Zaman K, et al. Oral vaccines for preventing cholera. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(3):CD008603.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD008603.pub2/abstracthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21412922?tool=bestpractice.com[33]Saha A, Chowdhury MI, Khanam F, et al. Safety and immunogenicity study of a killed bivalent (O1 and O139) whole-cell oral cholera vaccine Shanchol, in Bangladeshi adults and children as young as 1 year of age. Vaccine. 2011;29:8285-8292.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21907255?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Sur D, Kanungo S, Sah B, et al. Efficacy of a low-cost, inactivated whole-cell oral cholera vaccine: results from 3 years of follow-up of a randomized, controlled trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2011;5:e1289.http://www.plosntds.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pntd.0001289http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22028938?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Phares CR, Date K, Travers P, et al. Mass vaccination with a two-dose oral cholera vaccine in a long-standing refugee camp, Thailand. Vaccine. 2016;34:128-133.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X15015686http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26549363?tool=bestpractice.com[36]Qadri F, Ali M, Chowdhury F, et al. Feasibility and effectiveness of oral cholera vaccine in an urban endemic setting in Bangladesh: a cluster randomised open-label trial. Lancet. 2015;386:1362-1371.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26164097?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Harris JB, LaRocque RC, Qadri F, et al. Cholera. Lancet. 2012;379:2466-2476.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22748592?tool=bestpractice.com 单价 Dukoral 疫苗包含灭活的 O1 型霍乱弧菌全细胞(EI Tor 型和古典生物型)和基因重组霍乱毒素 B 亚单位。二价 Shanchol 和 Euvichol 疫苗包含灭活的 O1 血清型(EI Tor 型和古典生物型)和 O139 血清型霍乱弧菌全细胞且两者成分相同。[38]Clemens JD, Nair GB, Ahmed T, et al. Cholera. Lancet. 2017 Mar 10 [Epub ahead of print].http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673617305597?via%3Dihubhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28302312?tool=bestpractice.com 这 3 种疫苗均分 2 次给药(不过,对于 2-5 岁的儿童,Dukoral 需分 3 次给药),可在 2 至 3 年内提供约 70% 的保护(为幼儿提供 1 年的保护)。一项在孟加拉国城市流行区进行的大型整群设计随机试验中,在仅接种疫苗组,Shantha 疫苗提供的累积 2 年总体保护率为 37%,而在行为改变联合疫苗接种组,提供的累积 2 年总体保护率为 45%。[36]Qadri F, Ali M, Chowdhury F, et al. Feasibility and effectiveness of oral cholera vaccine in an urban endemic setting in Bangladesh: a cluster randomised open-label trial. Lancet. 2015;386:1362-1371.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26164097?tool=bestpractice.com mORCVAX(商品名;由越南 VaBiotech 生产)是另一种成分与 Shanchol 相似的二价疫苗,但仅在越南许可使用。所有口服疫苗均对 O1 型霍乱弧菌展现出良好的预防效果。[39]Hill DR, Ford L, Lalloo DG. Oral cholera vaccines: use in clinical practice. Lancet Infect Dis. 2006;6:361-373.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16728322?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Sur D, Lopez AL, Kanungo S, et al. Efficacy and safety of a modified killed-whole-cell oral cholera vaccine in India: an interim analysis of a cluster-randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2009;374:1694-1702.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19819004?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Masuet Aumatell C, Ramon Torrell JM, Zuckerman JN. Review of oral cholera vaccines: efficacy in young children. Infect Drug Resist. 2011;4:155-160.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3215343/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22114507?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Das JK, Tripathi A, Ali A, et al. Vaccines for the prevention of diarrhea due to cholera, shigella, ETEC and rotavirus. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(suppl 3):S11.http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/13/S3/S11http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24564510?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Bhattacharya SK, Sur D, Ali M, et al. 5 year efficacy of a bivalent killed whole-cell oral cholera vaccine in Kolkata, India: a cluster-randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2013;13:1050-1056.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24140390?tool=bestpractice.com
WHO 推荐将口服疫苗应用于霍乱流行地区,同时也建议将此药用于高风险地区。[44]World Health Organization. Cholera vaccines: WHO position paper - Recommendations. Vaccine. 2010;28:4687-4688.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20483196?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Martin S, Lopez AL, Bellos A, et al. Post-licensure deployment of oral cholera vaccines: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ. 2014;92:881-893.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4264394/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25552772?tool=bestpractice.com 给予畜群口服霍乱疫苗可中断城市贫民区的疾病传播,这表明高水平的疫苗覆盖可为高风险人群提供更高水平的全面(直接和间接)防护。[46]Ali M, Sur D, You YA, et al. Herd protection by a bivalent killed whole-cell oral cholera vaccine in the slums of Kolkata, India. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1123-1131.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/56/8/1123.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23362293?tool=bestpractice.com 关于在难民营或自然灾害后开展的 16 次活动的综述显示,这 2 种通过 WHO 预审的口服霍乱疫苗的使用剂量超过 3 百万剂,约有 46% 至 88% 的目标人群服用了 2 剂疫苗。[45]Martin S, Lopez AL, Bellos A, et al. Post-licensure deployment of oral cholera vaccines: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ. 2014;92:881-893.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4264394/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25552772?tool=bestpractice.com 个体完成全面接种的大约费用为 $0.11-$3.99 美元。
这些疫苗没有在美国上市。Dukoral 可在英国、加拿大和欧洲使用。在美国,减毒活疫苗 (CVD 103-HgR) 已被美国食品药品监督管理局 (FDA) 和免疫实践咨询委员会 (Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, ACIP) 批准用于对准备去霍乱传播活跃地区的成年人(18至64岁)。(霍乱传播活跃地区定义为:有由产毒型 O1 群霍乱弧菌引起的地方性或流行病性霍乱出现的国家内省、州或其他行政区,包括在过去一年内有霍乱疫情/疾病流行且有倾向再次出现的地区。)[47]Wong KK, Burdette E, Mahon BE, et al. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices for Use of Cholera Vaccine. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:482-485.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28493859?tool=bestpractice.com 疫苗的有效性估计在 80% 至 90% 之间,此数据是在健康的志愿者接受口服 O1 群霍乱弧菌疫苗测试 3 个月加 10 天后得出的。[48]Chen WH, Cohen MB, Kirkpatrick BD, et al. Single-dose live oral cholera vaccine CVD 103-HgR protects against human experimental infection with Vibrio cholerae O1 El Tor. Clin Infect Dis. 2016;62:1329-1335.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4872293/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27001804?tool=bestpractice.com
尽管注射用疫苗安全且非常有效,但已不再应用于标准治疗,因此已经停产。[49]Graves PM, Deeks JJ, Demicheli V, et al. Vaccines for preventing cholera: killed whole cell or other subunit vaccines (injected). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(8):CD000974.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000974.pub2/abstracthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20687062?tool=bestpractice.com