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The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993 Sep 30;329(14):977-86.

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UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ. 1998 Sep 12;317(7160):703-13.

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Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Photocoagulation treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Clinical application of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (DRS) findings, DRS report number 8. Ophthalmology. 1981 Jul;88(7):583-600.

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Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Treatment techniques and clinical guidelines for photocoagulation of diabetic macular edema. ETDRS report number 2. Ophthalmology. 1987 Jul;94(7):761-74.

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American Academy of Ophthalmology. Preferred practice pattern: diabetic retinopathy. December 2017 [internet publication]

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1.  Nguyen QD, Shah SM, Heier JS, et al. Primary end point (six months) results of the ranibizumab for edema of the mAcula in diabetes (READ-2) study. Ophthalmology. 2009 Nov;116(11):2175-81.e1.

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2.  Ogurtsova K, da Rocha Fernandes JD, Huang Y, et al. IDF Diabetes Atlas: global estimates for the prevalence of diabetes for 2015 and 2040. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2017 Jun;128:40-50.

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3.  Yau JW, Rogers SL, Kawasaki R, et al. Global prevalence and major risk factors of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 2012 Mar;35(3):556-64.

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4.  Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984 Apr;102(4):520-6.

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5.  Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol. 1984 Apr;102(4):527-32.

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6.  Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIV. Ten-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1994 Sep;112(9):1217-28.

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7.  Wong TY, Mwamburi M, Klein R,et al. Rates of progression in diabetic retinopathy during different time periods: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care. 2009 Dec;32(12):2307-13.

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8.  Varma R, Torres M, Pena F, et al. Prevalence of diabetic retinopathy in adult Latinos: the Los Angeles Latino eye study. Opthalmology. 2004 Jul;111(7):1298-306.

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9.  Roy MS. Diabetic retinopathy in African Americans with type 1 diabetes: the New Jersey 725. 1. Methodology, population, frequency of retinopathy, and visual impairment. Arch Ophthalmol. 2000 Jan;118(1):97-104.

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10.  Cinar Y, Senyol AM, Duman K. Blood viscosity and blood pressure: role of temperature and hyperglycemia. Am J Hypertens. 2001;14:433-438.

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11.  Pecsvarady Z, Fisher TC, Darwin CH, et al. Decreased polymorphonuclear leucocyte deformability in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1994 Jan;17(1):57-63.

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12.  Vaidyula VR, Boden G, Rao AK. Platelet and monocyte activation by hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia in healthy subjects. Platelets. 2006;17:577-585.

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13.  Forrester JV. Mechanisms of new vessel formation in the retina. Diabet Med. 1987;4:423-430.

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14.  Rassam SM, Patel V, Kohner EM. The effect of experimental hypertension on retinal vascular autoregulation in humans: a mechanism for the progression of diabetic retinopathy. Exp Physiol. 1995;80:53-68.

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15.  Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Clustering of long-term complications in families with diabetes in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes. 1997;46:1829-1839.

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16.  Moran EP, Wang Z, Chen J, et al. Neurovascular cross talk in diabetic retinopathy: pathophysiological roles and therapeutic implications. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2016 Sep 1;311(3):H738-49.

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17.  Aiello LP, Northrup JM, Keyt BA, et al. Hypoxic regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor in retinal cells. Arch Ophthalmol. 1995 Dec;113(12):1538-44.

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18.  Tolentino MJ, McLeod DS, Taomoto M, et al. Pathologic features of vascular endothelial growth factor-induced retinopathy in the nonhuman primate. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002 Mar;133(3):373-85.

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19.  Aiello LP, Avery RL, Arrigg PG, et al. Vascular endothelial growth factor in ocular fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy and other retinal disorders. N Engl J Med. 1994 Dec 1;331(22):1480-7.

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20.  Funatsu H, Yamashita H, Nakamura S, et al. Vitreous levels of pigment epithelium-derived factor and vascular endothelial growth factor are related to diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2006 Feb;113(2):294-301.

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21.  Avery RL, Pearlman J, Pieramici DJ, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) in the treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Opthalmology. 2006 Oct;113(10):1695.e1-15.

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22.  Haritoglou C, Kook D, Neubauer A, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab (Avastin) therapy for persistent diffuse diabetic macular edema. Retina. 2006 Nov-Dec;26(9):999-1005.

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23.  Kuo CH, Gillies MC. Role of steroids in the treatment of diabetic macular edema. Int Ophthalmol Clin. 2009 Spring;49(2):121-34.

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24.  The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med. 1993 Sep 30;329(14):977-86.

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25.  UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet. 1998 Sep 12;352(9131):837-53.

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26.  UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ. 1998 Sep 12;317(7160):703-13.

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27.  Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy: XVII. The 14-year incidence and progression of diabetic retinopathy and associated risk factors in type 1 diabetes. Ophthalmology. 1998;105:1801-1815.

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28.  Klein R, Moss SE, Klein BE. Is gross proteinuria a risk factor for the incidence of proliferative diabetic retinopathy? Ophthalmology. 1993;100:1140-1146.

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29.  Mathiesen ER, Ronn B, Storm B, et al. The natural course of microalbuminuria in insulin-dependent diabetes: a 10-year prospective study. Diabet Med. 1995;12:482-487.

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30.  UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS). X. Urinary albumin excretion over 3 years in diet-treated type 2, (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients, and with hypertension, hyperglycaemia and hypertriglyceridaemia. Diabetologia. 1993;36:1021-1029.

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31.  Klein R, Klein BE, Moss SE, et al. The 10-year incidence of renal insufficiency in people with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1999;22:743-751.

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32.  Nelson RG, Wolfe JA, Horton MB, et al. Proliferative retinopathy in NIDDM. Incidence and risk factors in Pima Indians. Diabetes. 1989;38:435-440.

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33.  Haffner SM, Fong D, Stern MP, et al. Diabetic retinopathy in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites. Diabetes. 1988;37:878-884.

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34.  Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R. Effect of pregnancy on progression of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 1990;13:34-40.

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35.  Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1084-1091.

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36.  American Diabetes Association. Standards of medical care in diabetes - 2018. Diabetes Care. 2018 January 1;41(suppl 1):S1-S159.

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37.  Dowler JG, Sehmi KS, Hykin PG, et al. The natural history of macular edema after cataract surgery in diabetes. Ophthalmology. 1999;106:663-668.

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38.  Hykin PG, Gregson RM, Stevens JD, et al. Extracapsular cataract extraction in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology. 1993;100:394-399.

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39.  Klein BE, Moss SE, Klein R, et al. The Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. XIII. Relationship of serum cholesterol to retinopathy and hard exudate. Ophthalmology. 1991;98:1261-1265.

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40.  Chew EY, Klein ML, Ferris FL 3rd, et al. Association of elevated serum lipid levels with retinal hard exudate in diabetic retinopathy. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) report 22. Arch Ophthalmol. 1996;114:1079-1084.

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41.  ACCORD Study Group; ACCORD Eye Study Group, Chew EY, et al. Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:233-244.

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42.  Chaturvedi N, Porta M, Klein R, et al. Effect of candesartan on prevention (DIRECT-Prevent 1) and progression (DIRECT-Protect 1) of retinopathy in type 1 diabetes: randomised, placebo-controlled trials. Lancet. 2008 Oct 18;372(9647):1394-402.

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43.  Samara WA, Shahlaee A, Adam MK, et al. Quantification of diabetic macular ischemia using optical coherence tomography angiography and its relationship with visual acuity. Ophthalmology. 2017 Feb;124(2):235-44.

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44.  Klein R, Meuer SM, Moss SE, et al. The relationship of retinal microaneurysm counts to the 4-year progression of diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol. 1989 Dec;107(12):1780-5.

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45.  Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Fundus photographic risk factors for progression of diabetic retinopathy. ETDRS report number 12. Ophthalmology. 1991 May;98(5 Suppl):823-33.

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46.  Wilkinson CP, Ferris FL 3rd, Klein RE, et al. Proposed international clinical diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema disease severity scales. Ophthalmology. 2003 Sep;110(9):1677-82.

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47.  Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Photocoagulation treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Clinical application of Diabetic Retinopathy Study (DRS) findings, DRS report number 8. Ophthalmology. 1981 Jul;88(7):583-600.

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48.  Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Grading diabetic retinopathy from stereoscopic color fundus photographs: an extension of the modified Airlie House classification. ETDRS report number 10. Ophthalmology. 1991 May;98(5 Suppl):786-806.

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49.  Chan A, Duker JS, Ko TH, et al. Normal macular thickness measurements in healthy eyes using Stratus optical coherence tomography. Arch Ophthalmol. 2006 Feb;124(2):193-8.

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50.  Mizener JB, Podhajsky P, Hayreh SS. Ocular ischemic syndrome. Ophthalmology. 1997 May;104(5):859-64.

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51.  Public Health England. Diabetic eye screening: commission and provide. April 2017 [internet publication].

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52.  Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Treatment techniques and clinical guidelines for photocoagulation of diabetic macular edema. ETDRS report number 2. Ophthalmology. 1987 Jul;94(7):761-74.

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53.  Javitt JC, Aiello LP. Cost-effectiveness of detecting and treating diabetic retinopathy. Ann Intern Med. 1996 Jan 1;124(1 Pt 2):164-9.

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54.  Singer DE, Nathan DM, Fogel HA, et al. Screening for diabetic retinopathy. Ann Intern Med. 1992 Apr 15;116(8):660-71.

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55.  Bailey CC, Sparrow JM, Grey RH, et al. The National Diabetic Retinopathy Laser Treatment Audit. III. Clinical outcomes. Eye. 1999 Apr;13 ( Pt 2):151-9.

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56.  American Academy of Ophthalmology. Preferred practice pattern: diabetic retinopathy. December 2017 [internet publication]

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57.  Solomon SD, Chew E, Duh EJ, et al. Diabetic retinopathy: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2017 Mar;40(3):412-18.

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58.  Mitchell P, Bandello F, Schmidt-Erfurth U, et al. The RESTORE Study: Ranibizumab Monotherapy or Combined with Laser versus Laser Monotherapy for Diabetic Macular Edema. Ophthalmology. 2011 Apr;118(4):615-25.

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59.  Nguyen QD, Brown DM, Marcus DM, et al. Ranibizumab for diabetic macular edema: results from 2 phase III randomized trials: RISE and RIDE. Ophthalmology. 2012 Apr;119(4):789-801.

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60.  Do DV, Nguyen QD, Boyer D, et al; da Vinci Study Group. One-year outcomes of the da Vinci Study of VEGF Trap-Eye in eyes with diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2012 Aug;119(8):1658-65.

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61.  Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Research Group. Early vitrectomy for severe vitreous hemorrhage in diabetic retinopathy. Two-year results of a randomized clinical trial. Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study report 2. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985 Nov;103(11):1644-52.

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62.  Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Research Group. Early vitrectomy for severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy in eyes with useful vision. Results of a randomized trial: Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study report 3. Ophthalmology. 1988 Oct;95(10):1307-20.

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63.  Heier JS, Korobelnik JF, Brown DM. et al. Intravitreal aflibercept for diabetic macular edema: 148-week results from the VISTA and VIVID studies. Ophthalmology. 2016 Nov;123(11):2376-85.

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64.  Sivaprasad S, Prevost AT, Vasconcelos JC, et al. Clinical efficacy of intravitreal aflibercept versus panretinal photocoagulation for best corrected visual acuity in patients with proliferative diabetic retinopathy at 52 weeks (CLARITY): a multicentre, single-blinded, randomised, controlled, phase 2b, non-inferiority trial. Lancet. 2017 Jun 3;389(10085):2193-203.

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65.  Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema: Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study report number 1. Arch Ophthalmol. 1985 Dec;103(12):1796-806.

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66.  Cheung CS, Wong AW, Lui A, et al. Incidence of endophthalmitis and use of antibiotic prophylaxis after intravitreal injections. Ophthalmology. 2012 Aug;119(8):1609-14.

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67.  Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. Early photocoagulation for diabetic retinopathy. ETDRS report number 9. Ophthalmology. 1991 May;98(5 Suppl):766-85.

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68.  Patz A, Schatz H, Berkow JW, et al. Macular edema: an overlooked complication of diabetic retinopathy. Trans Am Acad Ophthalmol Otolaryngol. 1973 Jan-Feb;77(1):OP34-42.

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69.  Writing Committee for the Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network. Panretinal photocoagulation vs intravitreous ranibizumab for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. JAMA. 2015 Nov 24;314(20):2137-46.

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70.  Hercules BL, Gayed II, Lucas SB, et al. Peripheral retinal ablation in the treatment of proliferative diabetic retinopathy: a three-year interim report of a randomised, controlled study using the argon laser. Br J Ophthalmol. 1977 Sep;61(9):555-63.

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71.  Ferris F. Early photocoagulation in patients with either type I or type II diabetes. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc. 1996;94:505-37.

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72.  Jacobson DR, Murphy RP, Rosenthal AR. The treatment of angle neovascularization with panretinal photocoagulation. Ophthalmology. 1979 Jul;86(7):1270-7.

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73.  Wakabayashi T, Oshima Y, Sakaguchi H, et al. Intravitreal bevacizumab to treat iris neovascularization and neovascular glaucoma secondary to ischemic retinal diseases in 41 consecutive cases. Ophthalmology. 2008 Sep;115(9):1571-80, 1580.e1-3.

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74.  Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Group. Early vitrectomy for severe vitreous hemorrhage in diabetic retinopathy. Four-year results of a randomized trial. Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study report 5. Arch Ophthalmol. 1990 Jul;108(7):958-64.

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75.  Rice TA, Michels RG, Rice EF. Vitrectomy for diabetic traction retinal detachment involving the macula. Am J Ophthalmol. 1983 Jan;95(1):22-33.

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76.  Thompson JT, de Bustros S, Michels RG, Rice TA. Results and prognostic factors in vitrectomy for diabetic traction-rhegmatogenous retinal detachment. Arch Ophthalmol. 1987 Apr;105(4):503-7.

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77.  Harbour JW, Smiddy WE, Flynn HW Jr, et al. Vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema associated with a thickened and taut posterior hyaloid membrane. Am J Ophthalmol. 1996 Apr;121(4):405-13.

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78.  Boyer DS, Yoon YH, Belfort R Jr, et al; Ozurdex MEAD Study Group. Three-year, randomized, sham-controlled trial of dexamethasone intravitreal implant in patients with diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology. 2014 Oct;121(10):1904-14.

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79.  Bressler SB, Glassman AR, Almukhtar T, et al. Five-year outcomes of ranibizumab with prompt or deferred laser versus laser or triamcinolone plus deferred ranibizumab for diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol. 2016 Apr;164:57-68.

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80.  Klein BE, Klein R, Moss SE. Incidence of cataract surgery in the Wisconsin Epidemiological Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Am J Ophthalmol. 1995 Mar;119(3):295-300.

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81.  Panozzo GA, Gusson E, Panozzo G, et al. Dexamethasone intravitreal implant at the time of cataract surgery in eyes with diabetic macular edema. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2017 Jun 26;27(4):433-7.

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82.  Chew EY, Benson WE, Remaley NA, et al. Results after lens extraction in patients with diabetic retinopathy: Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) report number 25. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 Dec;117(12):1600-6.

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83.  McDonald HR, Schatz H. Macular edema following panretinal photocoagulation. Retina. 1985 Winter-Spring;5(1):5-10.

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84.  Fong DS, Girach A, Boney A. Visual side effects of successful scatter laser photocoagulation surgery for proliferative diabetic retinopathy: a literature review. Retina. 2007 Sep;27(7):816-24.

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