许多机会性真菌病原体(例如念珠菌属及新型隐球菌)在世界范围内引发疾病。相比之下,地方性真菌病(例如组织胞浆菌病和球孢子菌病,及小范围的格特隐球菌)则限定在某些特定的地理区域。[7]Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20:115-132.http://cmr.asm.org/content/20/1/115.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17223625?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Wheat LJ. Histoplasmosis: a review for clinicians from non-endemic areas. Mycoses. 2006;49:274-282.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16784440?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Saubolle MA, McKellar PP, Sussland D. Epidemiologic, clinical and diagnostic aspects of coccidioidomycosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:26-30.http://jcm.asm.org/content/45/1/26.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17108067?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Johnson RH, Einstein HE. Coccidioidal meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42:103-107.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/42/1/103.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16323099?tool=bestpractice.com[11]Jenney A, Pandithage K, Fisher DA, et al. Cryptococcus infection in tropical Australia. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42:3865-3868.http://jcm.asm.org/content/42/8/3865.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15297551?tool=bestpractice.com[12]MacDougall L, Kidd SE, Galanis E, et al. Spread of Cryptococcus gattii in British Columbia, Canada, and detection in the Pacific Northwest, USA. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13:42-50.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/13/1/06-0827_articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17370514?tool=bestpractice.com新型隐球菌是一种表型异源性病原体,并且在人类感染过程中遗传谱系在隐球菌的毒性方面发挥了重要的作用。[13]Beale MA, Sabiiti W, Robertson EJ, et al. Genotypic diversity is associated with clinical outcome and phenotype in cryptococcal meningitis across Southern Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2015;9:e0003847.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4482434/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26110902?tool=bestpractice.com
在二十世纪八十年代,新型隐球菌作为一种重要的机会性感染致病菌出现在美国、欧洲及澳大利亚,在所有艾滋病患者中占 5% 至 10% 。自二十世纪九十年代起,美国HIV相关的隐球菌病的发生率已经有所下降,主要原因在于早期有效的抗逆转录病毒治疗。在亚特兰大的艾滋病患者中,年发病率从 1992 年的 66/1000 降至 2000 年的 7/1000。[14]Mirza SA, Phelan M, Rimland D, et al. The changing epidemiology of cryptococcosis: an update from population-based active surveillance in 2 large metropolitan areas, 1992-2000. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:789-794.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/36/6/789.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12627365?tool=bestpractice.com然而,隐球菌病依然是发展中国家艾滋病感染患者发病和死亡的主要原因。[15]Holmes CB, Losina E, Walensky RP, et al. Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:652-662.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/36/5/652.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12594648?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Chariyalertsak S, Sirisanthana T, Saengwonloey O, et al. Clinical presentation and risk behaviours of patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Thailand, 1994-1998: regional variation and temporal trends. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:955-962.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/32/6/955.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11247718?tool=bestpractice.com以泰国、乌干达、马拉维及南非为主,隐球菌性脑膜炎仍是HIV感染患者死亡的一个主要原因,预计2周死亡风险为17%,而10周死亡风险为34%。[17]Jarvis JN, Bicanic T, Loyse A, et al. Determinants of mortality in a combined cohort of 501 patients with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: implications for improving outcomes. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:736-745.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/58/5/736.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24319084?tool=bestpractice.com患者的死亡风险与下列因素有关:低体重、老年、贫血(血红蛋白[Hb]<75g/L[<7.5g/dL])、高外周血白细胞计数、高真菌水平及精神状态的改变。[17]Jarvis JN, Bicanic T, Loyse A, et al. Determinants of mortality in a combined cohort of 501 patients with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: implications for improving outcomes. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:736-745.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/58/5/736.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24319084?tool=bestpractice.com在撒哈拉以南非洲的许多地区,HIV相关隐球菌性脑膜炎目前是社区获得性脑膜炎的主要病因。[18]Hakim JG, Gangaidzo IT, Heyderman RS, et al. Impact of HIV infection on meningitis in Harare: a prospective study of 406 predominantly adult patients. AIDS. 2000;14:1401-1407.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10930155?tool=bestpractice.com[19]Gordon SB, Walsh AL, Chaponda M, et al. Bacterial meningitis in Malawian adults: pneumococcal disease is common, severe and seasonal. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:53-57.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/1/53.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10913396?tool=bestpractice.com
关于非HIV相关隐球菌病,二十世纪九十年代该病的发病率增至每年100,000人中即有1例,其中原因很大程度在于:器官移植临床应用的增加及针对癌症及其他全身性疾病进行免疫抑制治疗方面取得的进展。[20]Hajjeh RA, Conn LA, Stephens DS, et al. Cryptococcosis: population-based multistate active surveillance and risk factors in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:449-454.http://jid.oxfordjournals.org/content/179/2/449.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9878030?tool=bestpractice.com总体而言,真菌性脑膜炎会使高达10%的癌症患者产生并发症,但可能不会产生典型的脑膜炎症状。[21]Safdieh JE, Mead PA, Sepkowitz KA, et al. Bacterial and fungal meningitis in patients with cancer. Neurology. 2008;70:943-947.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18347316?tool=bestpractice.com加拿大温哥华岛自 1999 年起已经出现了超过 100 例格特隐球菌感染病例,其中大部分出现在无严重免疫抑制的患者中。[22]MacDougall L, Fyfe M. Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii in a novel environment provides clues to its incubation period. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44:1851-1852.http://jcm.asm.org/content/44/5/1851.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16672420?tool=bestpractice.com[23]Hoang LM, Maguire JA, Doyle P, et al. Cryptococcus neoformans infections at Vancouver Hospital and Health Sciences Centre (1997-2002): epidemiology, microbiology and histopathology. J Med Microbiol. 2004;53:935-940.http://jmm.sgmjournals.org/content/53/9/935.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15314203?tool=bestpractice.com
组织胞浆菌病是地方性疾病,尤其发生于美国俄亥俄及密西西比河谷地区。但是,该病同样广泛发生于美洲中部及南部、非洲、亚洲及欧洲南部的部分地区。[7]Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007;20:115-132.http://cmr.asm.org/content/20/1/115.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17223625?tool=bestpractice.com通过在结核菌素阴性个体中进行荚膜组织胞浆菌素皮肤检测以确定流行区域的研究显示,超过 80% 来自俄亥俄州及密西西比河相邻州的年轻成人曾感染荚膜组织胞浆菌病。[24]Edwards LB, Acquaviva FA, Livesay VT, et al. An atlas of sensitivity to tuberculin, PPD-B, and histoplasmin in the United States. Annu Rev Respir Dis. 1969;99(Suppl):1-132.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5767603?tool=bestpractice.com健康人群荚膜组织胞浆菌低水平暴露大多无症状。欧洲的大多数组织胞浆菌病病例均为病区“输入性”病例。[8]Wheat LJ. Histoplasmosis: a review for clinicians from non-endemic areas. Mycoses. 2006;49:274-282.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16784440?tool=bestpractice.com在 5-10% 的进行性播散性组织胞浆菌病病例中,临床上都发现了中枢神经系统 (CNS) 受累,[25]Wheat LJ, Musial CE, Jenny-Avital E. Diagnosis and management of central nervous system histoplasmosis. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;40:844-852.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/6/844.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15736018?tool=bestpractice.comHIV 感染是它的一个危险因素。
球孢子菌病仅见于西半球,主要在美国西南部及墨西哥西北部地区。[9]Saubolle MA, McKellar PP, Sussland D. Epidemiologic, clinical and diagnostic aspects of coccidioidomycosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:26-30.http://jcm.asm.org/content/45/1/26.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17108067?tool=bestpractice.com[26]Chiller TM, Galgani JN, Stevens DA. Coccidioidomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2003;17:41-57.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12751260?tool=bestpractice.com[27]DiCaudo DJ. Coccidioidomycosis: a review and update. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2006;55:929-942.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17110216?tool=bestpractice.com据预计,美国每年有100,000~150,000例球孢子菌病的病例。原发性疾病及后续传播发生率持续增加,部分原因在于:人口增长、移民及免疫功能不全宿主人数的增加。[28]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Coccidioidomycosis - Arizona, 1990-1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996;45:1069-1073.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00044697.htmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8975119?tool=bestpractice.com[29]Ampel NM, Mosley DG, England B, et al. Coccidioidomycosis in Arizona: increase in incidence from 1990 to 1995. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;27:1528-1530.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9868673?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Increase in coccidioidomycosis - Arizona, 1998-2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003;52:109-112.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12645841?tool=bestpractice.com早期强效抗逆转录病毒治疗的发展已经降低了HIV相关性球孢子菌病的发病率。[31]Ampel MA. Coccidiodomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:1174-1178.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/41/8/1174.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16163637?tool=bestpractice.com[32]Ampel NM, Dols CL, Galgiani JN. Coccidioidomycosis during human immunodeficiency virus infection: results of a prospective study in a coccidioidal endemic area. Am J Med. 1993;94:235-240.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8095771?tool=bestpractice.com
所有侵袭性念珠菌病的患病率均在增加。在早产儿及1个月内的婴儿中,念珠菌性脑膜炎是相对常见的脑膜炎病因。[33]Olmedo Diaz I, Pallas Alonso CR, Miralles Molina M, et al. Neonatal meningitis: study of 56 cases. An Esp Pediatr. 1997;46:189-194.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9157811?tool=bestpractice.com[34]Buchs S. Candida meningitis: a growing threat to premature and fullterm infants. Pediatr Infect Dis. 1985;4:122-123.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3982976?tool=bestpractice.com在一项美国的10年回溯性研究中,新生儿念珠菌性脑膜炎占新生儿重症监护病房住院治疗的0.4%。[35]Fernandez M, Moylett EH, Noyola DE, et al. Candidal meningitis in neonates: a 10-year review. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;31:458-463.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/31/2/458.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10987705?tool=bestpractice.com成人念珠菌血症极少与脑膜炎有关,而尸检序列研究发现不足15%的弥散性念珠菌病例存在脑膜受累。[36]Lipton SA, Hickey WF, Morris JH, et al. Candidal infection in the central nervous system. Am J Med. 1984;76:101-108.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6691350?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Voice RA, Bradley SF, Sangeorzan JA, et al. Chronic candidal meningitis: an uncommon manifestation of candidiasis. Clin. Infect Dis. 1994;19:60-66.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7948559?tool=bestpractice.com念珠菌性脑膜炎是CNS分流术或脑室切开植入术后最常见的真菌性脑膜炎。[38]Chiou CC, Wong TT, Lin HH, et al. Fungal infection of ventriculoperitoneal shunts in children. Clin Infect Dis. 1994;19:1049-1053.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7888533?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Sanchez-Portocarrero J, Martin-Rabadan P, Saldana CJ, et al. Candida cerebrospinal fluid shunt infection. Report of two new cases and review of the literature. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 1994;20:33-40.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7867296?tool=bestpractice.com在1岁以内婴幼儿群体中的发生率最高。神经外科手术相关的 CNS 念珠菌病可能在增加,[40]Nguyen MH, Yu VL. Meningitis caused by Candida species: an emerging problem in neurosurgical patients. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21:323-327.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8562739?tool=bestpractice.com这或许与神经外科手术治疗的预防性抗生素处方用药有关。
2012 年 9 月美国报告了一起真菌感染及致命性真菌性脑膜炎的爆发事件,因治疗所使用的受污染药品(甲泼尼龙的药瓶)中的嘴突脐孢而导致。[41]Kainer MA, Reagan DR, Nguyen DB, et al; Tennessee Fungal Meningitis Investigation Team. Fungal infections associated with contaminated methylprednisolone in Tennessee. N Engl J Med. 2012;367:2194-2203.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1212972#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23131029?tool=bestpractice.com美国疾病预防控制中心和当地卫生部门对该事件进行了调查。调查追踪了从患者样本中分离出的主要真菌病原体,即嘴突脐孢,它来自于同一个复方药物药房生产的三批受污染醋酸甲泼尼龙。在 20 个州中总共有 753 例病例报告,有 64 人死亡。[42]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Multistate outbreak of fungal meningitis and other infections – case count. October 2015. http://www.cdc.gov (last accessed 31 August 2016).http://www.cdc.gov/hai/outbreaks/meningitis-map-large.html#casecount_table