典型的诊断通过仔细询问患者的临床症状(例如胃肠道症状、不育、血尿、血精或阴道/外阴损伤)和患者是否居住或前往血吸虫的流行地区旅行决定。然后,详尽的体格检查和实验室检查有利于确诊和/或转诊。
病史
旅行史和居住史是明确感染暴露风险最重要的因素。[26]Warren KS, Mahmoud AA. Algorithms in the diagnosis and management of exotic diseases: I. schistosomiasis. J Infect Dis. 1975;131:614-620.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1127262?tool=bestpractice.com血吸虫病发生于非洲、中东、远东、南美洲部分地区和加勒比地区。[22]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Schistosomiasis infection. 2013. http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/ (last accessed 5 December 2016).http://www.cdc.gov/dpdx/schistosomiasis/index.html在流行地区暴露于淡水的活动史对评估患病风险也非常重要。对于旅行者,预防措施最重要。对于流行区的人,一套完整的措施包括健康教育是必须的。[27]Bichler KH, Savatovsky I; the Members of the Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) Working Group of the Guidelines Office of the European Association of Urology. EAU guidelines for the management of urogenital schistosomiasis. Eur Urol. 2006;49:998-1003.http://www.europeanurology.com/article/S0302-2838(06)00197-7/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16519990?tool=bestpractice.com
暴露后与症状发生的间隔时间能帮助区别皮肤感染(尾蚴性皮炎),急性血吸虫病(片山综合征),慢性血吸虫病。急性血吸虫病发生在暴露后数周。它的症状无特异性,包括发热、疲乏、咳嗽、腹痛和腹泻。慢性肠血吸虫病可表现间歇性的腹痛,腹泻和血便。泌尿系血吸虫病可表现排尿困难、下腹痛、不育、血尿、血精、阴道或外阴损伤。进行性的肺动脉和肺毛细血管闭塞可导致肺实质纤维化。病程可持续几十年,最终表现为进行性的呼吸困难。表现为进行性的呼吸困难。
体格检查
在皮肤暴露污水几小时后,皮肤可发现丘疹(游泳者瘙痒)。[28]Mulvihill CA, Burnett JW. Swimmer's itch: a cercarial dermatitis. Cutis. 1990;46:211-213.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2225928?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 轻度的尾蚴性皮炎(游泳者瘙痒)CDC;允许使用 [Citation ends].
暴露1~3个月后的急性血吸虫病可表现发热、咳嗽、腹部压痛或肝脾肿大。这阶段感染的实验室检查结果无特异性。[12]Visser LG, Polderman AM, Stuiver PC. Outbreak of schistosomiasis among travelers returning from Mali, West Africa. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;20:280-285.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7742430?tool=bestpractice.com[29]de Jesus AR, Silva A, Santana LB, et al. Clinical and immunologic evaluation of 31 patients with acute schistosomiasis mansoni. J Infect Dis. 2002;185:98-105.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11756987?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Johnston V, Stockley JM, Dockrell D, et al. British Infection Society and the Hospital for Tropical Diseases. Fever in returned travellers presenting in the United Kingdom: recommendations for investigation and initial management. J Infect. 2009;59:1-18.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19595360?tool=bestpractice.com
有慢性血吸虫感染的儿童可有生长迟缓,体重减轻和贫血。[15]Leenstra T, Acosta LP, Langdon GC, et al. Schistosomiasis japonica, anemia, and iron status in children, adolescents, and young adults in Leyte, Philippines 1. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83:371-379.http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/83/2/371http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16469997?tool=bestpractice.com[31]Coutinho HM, McGarvey ST, Acosta LP, et al. Nutritional status and serum cytokine profiles in children, adolescents, and young adults with Schistosoma japonicum-associated hepatic fibrosis, in Leyte, Philippines. J Infect Dis. 2005;192:528-536.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15995969?tool=bestpractice.com[32]King CH, Dickman K, Tisch DJ. Reassessment of the cost of chronic helmintic infection: a meta-analysis of disability-related outcomes in endemic schistosomiasis. Lancet. 2005;65:1561-1569.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15866310?tool=bestpractice.com慢性肠道血吸虫病患者的其他发现包括门静脉高血压症体征(包括腹水、足部水肿和肝脾肿大)。[1]King CH. Schistosomiasis. In: Guerrant RL, Walker DH, Weller PF, eds. Tropical infectious diseases: principles, pathogens and practice. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone; 2001:1341-1348.在泌尿系血吸虫病中,肾积水在体检时会被当作腹部肿块,患者同时会有肝脾肿大。同时,患者可有腹部或盆腔压痛。女性患者的盆腔检查会发现外阴,阴道或宫颈溃疡。[33]Kjetland EF, Ndhlovu PD, Mduluza T, et al. Simple clinical manifestations of genital Schistosoma haematobium infection in rural Zimbabwean women. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;72:311-319.http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/72/3/311http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15772328?tool=bestpractice.com对于男性患者,直肠检查会发现前列腺肿块,压痛或肥大。[34]Corachan M, Valls ME, Gascon J, et al. Hematospermia: a new etiology of clinical interest. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1994;50:580-584.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8203707?tool=bestpractice.com
实验室检查
血吸虫感染最特异性的检查为在尿液,粪便或其他组织活检中发现血吸虫卵。[35]Peters PAS, Kazura JW. Update on diagnostic methods for schistosomiasis. In: Mahmoud AAF, ed. Balliere's clinical tropical medicine and communicable diseases: schistosomiasis. London, UK: Bailliere Tindall; 1987:419-433.
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 埃及血吸虫虫卵(显微镜下)。放大500倍CDC;允许使用 [Citation ends].虽然死亡的虫卵在感染后一段时间,但寄生虫学检查发现虫卵后也需要吡喹酮治疗以清除潜在的活动性感染。阴性的虫卵筛查结果不能排除活动性感染。在急性感染和低强度慢性感染中,这些寄生虫学试验结果可均为阴性。[36]Savioli L, Hatz C, Dixon H, et al. Control of morbidity due to Schistosoma haematobium on Pemba Island: egg excretion and hematuria as indicators of infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1990;43:289-295.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2121056?tool=bestpractice.com
血清学阳性的抗血吸虫抗体对暴露感染具有敏感性和特异性,但其不能区别正在进行中的感染和既往感染或决定寄生虫感染的程度。[37]Al-Sherbiny MM, Osman AM, Hancock K, et al. Application of immunodiagnostic assays: detection of antibodies and circulating antigens in human schistosomiasis and correlation with clinical findings. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1999;60:960-966.http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/reprint/60/6/960http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10403328?tool=bestpractice.com因为在在感染后3月血清学检测结果才能为阳性,所以有急性血吸虫病临床表现的患者常常会有阴性的血清学检测结果。一个有阳性血清学结果且有<5年的暴露史而未治疗的患者应当需要考虑诊断性运用吡喹酮治疗慢性感染。
其他支持性(但非病征性)诊断试验包括针对隐匿性胃肠出血进行粪便愈创木脂试验发现的异常;检测贫血或嗜酸粒细胞增多的全血细胞计数 (FBC);针对血尿、蛋白尿、脓尿和嗜酸细胞尿进行的尿液分析;全套肾功能异常检查或肝功能试验。当血吸虫病的可疑程度高而标准的寄生虫学检测结果阴性,那么这些异常结果提示应进行血清学检测,影像学检查,组织活检来寻找活动性血吸虫感染的证据。
从血吸虫流行地区回来的旅行者需要行血培养和疟疾厚薄涂片检查排除除急性血吸虫病之外引起发热的其他原因。如果急性血吸虫病是发热的唯一原因,那么这些结果应该是阴性的。其他诊断试验在CDC的网站上可以获取。CDC: parasites - schistosomiasis: resources for health professionals
已开发出用于检测血吸虫 DNA 或 RNA 的许多检测,以补充寄生虫学和血清学诊断,具有较高报告准确度。这些检测的可用性因地区而异。可针对血清、粪便、CSF 或尿液进行检测。[38]Weerakoon KG, Gobert GN, Cai P, et al. Advances in the diagnosis of human schistosomiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2015;28:939-967.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26224883?tool=bestpractice.com
尿循环阳极抗原检测 (CAA) 是一项用于筛查泌尿系血吸虫病的床旁检测。可在无法进行显微镜检查的疾病流行区使用。该检测具有良好的灵敏度;但是,其特异性存在争议,因为许多个体的检测结果呈阳性,而显微镜检查的情况下未出现阳性结果。这可能是因为其比显微镜检查更加灵敏。[38]Weerakoon KG, Gobert GN, Cai P, et al. Advances in the diagnosis of human schistosomiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2015;28:939-967.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26224883?tool=bestpractice.com[39]Ochodo EA, Gopalakrishna G, Spek B, et al. Circulating antigen tests and urine reagent strips for diagnosis of active schistosomiasis in endemic areas. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(3):CD009579.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009579.pub2/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25758180?tool=bestpractice.com
放射学检查
对受感染的器官(膀胱,肾脏或门静脉和肝脏)进行超声,CT或MRI检查后,若出现特征性的改变可有助于诊断和治疗的随访。脑或脊柱的MRI检查对神经系统症状有指导意义。[40]Ferrari TC. Involvement of central nervous system in the schistosomiasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2004;99:59-62.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762004000900010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15486636?tool=bestpractice.com胸部X片和胸部CT对有呼吸道症状的可疑肺动脉高压患者的评估有指导作用。[41]King CL. Schistosomiasis. In: Mahmoud AAF, ed. Parasitic lung diseases. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 1997:135-155.
转诊适应征
阴道或宫颈溃疡应该行活检排除癌症。[33]Kjetland EF, Ndhlovu PD, Mduluza T, et al. Simple clinical manifestations of genital Schistosoma haematobium infection in rural Zimbabwean women. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2005;72:311-319.http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/72/3/311http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15772328?tool=bestpractice.com不育需要更多更广的解剖学和内分泌学检测来评估其他原因,建议进行妇科会诊。[42]El-Mahgoub S. Pelvic schistosomiasis and infertility. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 1982;20:201-206.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6127246?tool=bestpractice.com
神经系统血吸虫病表现为癫痫发作或与炎症部位相关的神经系统局部症状(例如,脑、脊髓、软脑膜或周围神经根)。[21]Amorosa V, Kremens D, Wolfe MS, et al. Schistosoma mansoni in family 5 years after safari. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:339-341.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15759334?tool=bestpractice.com[43]Pittella JE. Neuroschistosomiasis. Brain Pathol. 1997;7:649-662.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9034571?tool=bestpractice.com[44]Gellido CL, Onesti S, Llena J, et al. Spinal schistosomiasis. Neurology. 2000;54:527.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10668735?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Ferrari TC. Involvement of central nervous system in the schistosomiasis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2004;99:59-62.http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762004000900010&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=enhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15486636?tool=bestpractice.com早期的脊髓MRI,神经内科和神经外科会诊对于处理这些病例是值得推荐的。
由于肠血吸虫病引起的进展性门静脉高压可表现为腹腔积液和由于食管静脉曲张所致的严重的上消化道出血。[45]Richter J, Correia Dacal AR, Vergetti Siqueira JG, et al. Sonographic prediction of variceal bleeding in patients with liver fibrosis due to Schistosoma mansoni. Trop Med Int Health. 1998;3:728-735.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9754668?tool=bestpractice.com请胃肠病学家和/或放射科医师会诊处理这些病例是值得推荐的。
后期感染也可表现肺部症状和肺源性心脏病症状。[41]King CL. Schistosomiasis. In: Mahmoud AAF, ed. Parasitic lung diseases. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 1997:135-155.处理这些病例,需除外其他原因,请呼吸科或心内科会诊是值得推荐的。
进展的泌尿系血吸虫病可表现为梗阻性尿路病,肾功能衰竭或膀胱癌症状。[46]Bedwani R, Renganathan E, El Kwhsky F, et al. Schistosomiasis and the risk of bladder cancer in Alexandria, Egypt. Br J Cancer. 1998;77:1186-1189.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9569060?tool=bestpractice.com处理这些病例,应请泌尿外科和肾内科会诊。