诊断方法包括获取完整的病史,关注关键诊断性症状(例如,无痛单侧上腹/腰部肿块)及是否存在阳性家族史(尽管较罕见)和任何先天性异常或相关的先天性综合征。腹部超声是确定诊断的初始检查选择,腹部和骨盆 CT 或 MRI 用于对肿瘤进行分期和计划进一步的治疗。通过手术切除(肾切除术)或开放活检(如果肿瘤无法切除)对疑似Wilms瘤明确诊断。通过胸部 X 线 (CXR) 和腹部/骨盆 CT 或 MRI 排除转移性疾病。
病史
应记录 Wilms 瘤家族史和存在的任何先天性泌尿生殖器异常。[8]Mahmood A, Ghafoor T, Badsha S. Wilms' tumour: presentation and treatment. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2004;14:142-145.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15228845?tool=bestpractice.com[9]Breslow NE, Olson J, Moksness J, et al. Familial Wilms' tumor: a descriptive study. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1996;27:398-403.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8827065?tool=bestpractice.com[10]van den Heuvel-Eibrink MM, Grundy P, Graf N, et al. Characteristics and survival of 750 children diagnosed with a renal tumor in the first seven months of life: a collaborative study by the SIOP/GPOH/SFOP, NWTSG, and UKCCSG Wilms tumor study groups. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2008;50:1130-1134.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18095319?tool=bestpractice.com应排除与过度生长或非过度生长综合征相关的特异性表型异常。[5]Green DM, Breslow NE, Beckwith JB, et al. Screening of children with hemihypertrophy, aniridia, and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome in patients with Wilms tumor: a report from the National Wilms Tumor Study. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1993;21:188-192.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8095320?tool=bestpractice.com[6]Heppe RK, Koyle MA, Beckwith JB. Nephrogenic rests in Wilms tumor patients with the Drash syndrome. J Urol. 1991;145:1225-1228.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1851891?tool=bestpractice.com[7]Breslow NE, Norris R, Norkool PA, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of children with the Wilms tumor-Aniridia syndrome: a report from the National Wilms Tumor Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:4579-4585.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14673045?tool=bestpractice.com[73]McNeil DE, Brown M, Ching A, et al. Screening for Wilms tumor and hepatoblastoma in children with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndromes: a cost-effective model. Med Pediatr Oncol. 2001;37:349-356.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11568898?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Grundy R, Pritchard J. Ascertainment of the incidence of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome in the National Wilms Tumor Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:593-594.http://jco.ascopubs.org/cgi/reprint/19/2/593-ahttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11208855?tool=bestpractice.com[83]Breslow NE, Collins AJ, Ritchey ML, et al. End stage renal disease in patients with Wilms tumor: results from the National Wilms Tumor Study Group and the United States Renal Data System. J Urol. 2005;174:1972-1975.http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16217371http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16217371?tool=bestpractice.com例如,短暂或持久的高胰岛素血症低血糖发生于 50% 的 Beckwith-Wiedemann 综合征儿童的新生儿期和婴儿期;因此,如果怀疑有该综合征,则应注意低血糖生育史。[5]Green DM, Breslow NE, Beckwith JB, et al. Screening of children with hemihypertrophy, aniridia, and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome in patients with Wilms tumor: a report from the National Wilms Tumor Study. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1993;21:188-192.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8095320?tool=bestpractice.com从全球范围来讲,黑人和白人儿童比亚洲儿童更常患 Wilms 瘤,[4]Bunin GR, Meadows AT. Epidemiology and Wilms tumor: approaches and methods. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1993;21:169-171.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8383277?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Fukuzawa R, Breslow NE, Morison IM, et al. Epigenetic differences between Wilms tumours in white and east-Asian children. Lancet. 2004;363:446-451.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14962525?tool=bestpractice.com且出现于 2-5 岁。[1]D'Angio GJ. The National Wilms Tumor Study: a 40 year perspective. Lifetime Data Anal. 2007;13:463-470.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18027087?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Kaste SC, Dome JS, Babyn PS, et al. Wilms tumour: prognostic factors, staging, therapy and late effects. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:2-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18026723?tool=bestpractice.com还应注意出生前父亲对辐射和化学物质的接触以及父亲的职业。
该肿瘤最常表现为无痛、单侧上腹/腰部肿块。[85]Pritchard J, Imeson J, Barnes J, et al. Results of the United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group first Wilms' Tumor Study. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13:124-133.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7799012?tool=bestpractice.com双侧肿瘤较罕见,见于 6%-10% 的患者;它们可能同时出现于双肾(同时)或可能累及一个肾,然后再累及另一个肾(异时)。[11]Coppes MJ, de Kraker J, van Dijken PJ, et al. Bilateral Wilms tumor: long-term survival and some epidemiological features. J Clin Oncol. 1989;7:310-315.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2537383?tool=bestpractice.com[12]Montgomery BT, Kelalis PP, Blute ML, et al. Extended followup of bilateral Wilms tumor: results of the National Wilms Tumor Study. J Urol. 1991;146:514-518.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1650403?tool=bestpractice.com[86]Shamberger RC, Haase GM, Argani P, et al. Bilateral Wilms' tumors with progressive or nonresponsive disease. J Pediatr Surg. 2006;41:652-657.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16567171?tool=bestpractice.com该肿瘤可能出现苍白、疲乏、腹痛、发热、肉眼或镜下血尿、食欲不振、恶病质和易激惹。[2]Kaste SC, Dome JS, Babyn PS, et al. Wilms tumour: prognostic factors, staging, therapy and late effects. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:2-17.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18026723?tool=bestpractice.com[8]Mahmood A, Ghafoor T, Badsha S. Wilms' tumour: presentation and treatment. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2004;14:142-145.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15228845?tool=bestpractice.com[87]Exelby PR. Wilms' tumor 1991. Clinical evaluation and treatment. Urol Clin North Am. 1991;18:589-597.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1652172?tool=bestpractice.com[88]Ehrlich RM, Bloomberg SD, Gyepes MT, et al. Wilms tumor, misdiagnosed preoperatively: a review of 19 National Wilms Tumor Study I cases. J Urol. 1979;122:790-792.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/229276?tool=bestpractice.com[89]Navoy JF, Royal SA, Vaid YN, et al. Wilms tumor: unusual manifestations. Pediatr Radiol. 1995;25(suppl 1):S76-S86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8577562?tool=bestpractice.com[90]Green DM. The treatment of stages I-IV favorable histology Wilms' tumor. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:1366-1372.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15084612?tool=bestpractice.com呼吸困难可能与贫血或肺转移相关。
Wilms 瘤出现于肾外部位的情况非常罕见,但腹膜后腔仍然是最常见的部位。[15]Rasheed K, O'Meara A, Kelleher J, et al. Extrarenal Wilms' tumor. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 1993;3:121-123.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8391838?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Coppes MJ, Wilson PC, Weitzman S. Extrarenal Wilms' tumor: staging, treatment, and prognosis. J Clin Oncol. 1991;9:167-174.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1845874?tool=bestpractice.com其表现(快速生长的无痛肿块)通常与典型 Wilms 瘤的表现相似,但体征和症状为肿瘤位置所独有(例如子宫 Wilms 瘤可能表现为阴道出血和骨盆出口梗阻症状,例如尿潴留和便秘)。[91]McAlpine J, Azodi M, O'Malley D, et al. Extrarenal Wilms' tumor of the uterine corpus. Gynecol Oncol. 2005;96:892-896.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15721447?tool=bestpractice.com
体格检查
应记录腹部包块的位置和范围。该肿块通常位于腹膜后(“可反击触诊的”),且不随着呼吸移动。[92]Graf N. Wilms tumor (in German). Praxis (Bern 1994). 1996;85:753-761.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8693243?tool=bestpractice.com碰触时平滑、坚固,且无压痛。患者还可能有腹胀。应检查生殖器,以查看是否存在任何先天性泌尿生殖器异常(即尿道下裂、外阴性别不明或隐睾症)。[84]Breslow NE, Takashima JR, Ritchey ML, et al. Renal failure in the Denys-Drash and Wilms tumor-aniridia syndromes. Cancer Res. 2000;60:4030-4032.http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/60/15/4030http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10945603?tool=bestpractice.com仰卧位出现精索静脉曲张可能与肿瘤扩散至下腔静脉或肾静脉相关。[89]Navoy JF, Royal SA, Vaid YN, et al. Wilms tumor: unusual manifestations. Pediatr Radiol. 1995;25(suppl 1):S76-S86.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8577562?tool=bestpractice.com[93]Auldist AW. Wilms' tumor presenting as a varicocele. J Pediatr Surg. 1976;11:471-472.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/182952?tool=bestpractice.com高血压较少见,且继发于肾血管压迫或由于肾素分泌过多。[94]Maas MH, Cransberg K, van Grotel M, et al. Renin-induced hypertension in Wilms tumor patients. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2007;48:500-503.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16794999?tool=bestpractice.com
肝肿大、骨压痛或疼痛,或淋巴结肿大可能提示转移性疾病。[17]Grundy P, Breslow N, Green DM, et al. Prognostic factors for children with recurrent Wilms' tumor: results from the Second and Third National Wilms' Tumor Study. J Clin Oncol. 1989;7:638-647.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2540289?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Perlman EJ. Pediatric renal tumors: practical updates for the pathologist. Pediatr Dev Pathol. 2005;8:320-338.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16010493?tool=bestpractice.comWilms 瘤的心脏内扩散较为罕见。[20]Abdullah Y, Karpelowsky J, Davidson A, et al. Management of nine cases of Wilms' tumour with intracardiac extension - a single centre experience. J Pediatr Surg. 2013;48:394-399.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23414872?tool=bestpractice.com可能是 Wilms 瘤相关综合征的特征的表型异常,应予以记录。[7]Breslow NE, Norris R, Norkool PA, et al. Characteristics and outcomes of children with the Wilms tumor-Aniridia syndrome: a report from the National Wilms Tumor Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2003;21:4579-4585.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14673045?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Grundy R, Pritchard J. Ascertainment of the incidence of Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome in the National Wilms Tumor Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 2001;19:593-594.http://jco.ascopubs.org/cgi/reprint/19/2/593-ahttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11208855?tool=bestpractice.com
罕见情况下,儿童可出现影响中枢和周围神经系统的副肿瘤综合征(例如全身无力、疲乏、上睑下垂、运动功能减退、构音障碍、尿潴留、双侧面瘫、眼肌麻痹和自主功能障碍)。[19]Petersen CL, Hemker BG, Jacobson RD, et al. Wilms tumor presenting with lambert-eaton myasthenic syndrome. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2013;35:267-270.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23612377?tool=bestpractice.com
实验室检查
应将肾脏和肝脏功能、全血细胞计数、尿液分析、血清蛋白/白蛋白和凝血功能作为基线检查进行,尽管它们不用于明确诊断。
影像学
初步检查旨在确立肿块的肾脏来源和范围。建议将腹部超声检查用作确立初步诊断的首要检查。[37]Brisse HJ, Smets AM, Kaste SC, et al. Imaging in unilateral Wilms tumour. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:18-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18038168?tool=bestpractice.com典型表现为大的回声、不均匀、单侧、主要为实质性(尽管可能会看到小的囊变区域)的肾内肿块。如果超声检查结果为疑似 Wilms 瘤,则应立即将患者转诊至大型儿科癌症中心,并计划进行进一步的影像学检查。[37]Brisse HJ, Smets AM, Kaste SC, et al. Imaging in unilateral Wilms tumour. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:18-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18038168?tool=bestpractice.com如果患者有呼吸道症状,转诊前还应进行胸部 X 线,以确定是否存在肺转移。
应进行腹部和骨盆 CT 或 MRI 检查,以计划进行手术和记录任何腹内扩散。[37]Brisse HJ, Smets AM, Kaste SC, et al. Imaging in unilateral Wilms tumour. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:18-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18038168?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: Wilms 瘤:MRI 发现UHRAD.com;经许可后使用 [Citation ends].识别肾源性残留或评估肝转移、腹部淋巴结肿大,或下腔静脉或肾静脉的瘤栓也很重要。[95]Szavay P, Luithle T, Semler O, et al. Surgery of cavoatrial tumor thrombus in nephroblastoma: a report of the SIOP/GPOH study. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2004;43:40-45.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15170888?tool=bestpractice.com应进行胸部 CT 检查以排除肺转移。[37]Brisse HJ, Smets AM, Kaste SC, et al. Imaging in unilateral Wilms tumour. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:18-29.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18038168?tool=bestpractice.com
尚未确定 PET 扫描在分期和治疗反应评估中的作用。[96]Provenzi M, Saettini F, Conter V, et al. Is there a role for FDG-PET for the assessment of treatment efficacy in Wilms' tumor? A case report and literature review. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2013;30:633-639.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24050763?tool=bestpractice.com
活检
通过手术切除(肾切除术)或开放活检(如果肿瘤无法切除)明确诊断。[1]D'Angio GJ. The National Wilms Tumor Study: a 40 year perspective. Lifetime Data Anal. 2007;13:463-470.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18027087?tool=bestpractice.com英国儿童癌症研究组建议进行经皮穿刺活检 (PCNB) 以帮助识别 CT/MRI/超声检查表现典型但不是Wilms 瘤的患者(即,约 12% 的患者)。[97]Arul GS, Gornall P. Is partial nephrectomy feasible in unilateral Wilms tumour? Results from the UKCCSG study (UKW-3). Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2004;43:792.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15390357?tool=bestpractice.com[98]Grundy RG, Hutton C, Middleton H, et al. Outcome of patients with stage III or inoperable WT treated on the second United Kingdom WT protocol (UKWT2); a United Kingdom Children's Cancer Study Group (UKCCSG) study. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2004;42:311-319.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14966826?tool=bestpractice.com[99]Vujanic GM, Kelsey A, Mitchell C, et al. The role of biopsy in the diagnosis of renal tumors of childhood: Results of the UKCCSG Wilms tumor study 3. Med Pediatr Oncol. 2003;40:18-22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12426681?tool=bestpractice.com[100]Mitchell C, Pritchard-Jones K, Shannon R, et al. Immediate nephrectomy versus preoperative chemotherapy in the management of non-metastatic Wilms tumour: results of a randomised trial (UKW3) by the UK Children's Cancer Study Group. Eur J Cancer. 2006;42:2554-2562.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16904312?tool=bestpractice.com但是,如果采用该方法,则必须考虑出现严重并发症(例如,针道复发、肿瘤破裂或大量出血)的可能性。儿童肿瘤学组不推荐使用 PCNB。
基因检测
分子基因学检测是用于确定与 Wilm 瘤可能相关的表型综合征的诊断工具。更确切地说,可通过荧光原位杂交 (FISH) 对有孤立的 Wilms 瘤或有 Wilms 瘤和相关性异常的患者进行 WT1 及其他邻近基因(例如 PAX6)缺失检查。可通过高分辨率染色体分析和 FISH 对有提示 Beckwith-Wiedemann 综合征的临床特征患者进行 11p15.5 复制检查。[101]Diller L, Ghahremani M, Morgan J, et al. Constitutional WT1 mutations in Wilms tumor patients. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16:3634-3640.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9817285?tool=bestpractice.com
在新鲜冷冻的肿瘤组织上对 16q 和 1p 进行杂合性缺失 (LOH) 检查。[40]Wittmann S, Zirn B, Alkassar M, et al. Loss of 11q and 16q in Wilms tumors is associated with anaplasia, tumor recurrence, and poor prognosis. Genes Chromosomes Cancer. 2007;46:163-170.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17099873?tool=bestpractice.comLOH 检查只是研究型检查,应在入选多中心临床试验后在经认证的研究实验室进行。
对于每名患有 Wilms 瘤的儿童,应为肿瘤材料(新鲜冷冻的肿瘤组织)和健康的肾组织建立生物库,以进行有助于确定新危险因素和更好的治疗靶标的研究。