很难仅依据急性损伤特征和表现出的体征与症状诊断是否发生了脑震荡。这是一个问题,因为这些症状对脑震荡不具有诊断特异性,在一般非头部受伤的人群中,出现此类症状的比例较高,特别是在之前受过创伤,但并未受到创伤性脑损伤 (TBI) 的人群中。应注意的是,脑震荡诊断无任何客观辅助手段。
初始病史
脑震荡病史采集应集中于损伤事件上。通常,病史采集应首先确定如何受伤,以及是直接撞击头部还是因撞击后身体加速-减速导致撞击力传输至头部,可能时可由目击者予以证实。应询问躯体、认知及情感症状,通常根据李克特量表 (Likert scale) 评分以评估严重程度。应特别注意那些受伤后即刻出现的且持续存在的症状,以及在评估时仍然存在的症状。可采用多种症状量表。[33]Alla S, Sullivan SJ, Hale L, et al. Self-report scales/checklists for the measurement of concussion symptoms: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(suppl 1):i3-i12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433422?tool=bestpractice.com受伤后当天症状恶化是正常的,特别是有脑震荡阳性病史的患者。[34]Bruce JM, Echemendia RJ. Concussion history predicts self-reported symptoms before and following a concussive event. Neurology. 2004;63:1516-1518.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15505180?tool=bestpractice.com陈旧性颅脑外伤会降低影响阈值,使其越来越容易罹患脑震荡(无论冲击力大小如何),因此,增加进一步颅脑外伤的可能性。滥用药物者出现各种创伤性脑损伤的风险显著性升高,但因为这部分人群出现各种外伤的整体风险较高,所以易发生混淆。脑震荡症状可能波动,但通常 1 周到 1 个月后缓解。医师应询问是否有以下症状:
头痛:最常报告的症状。尽管经常会立即感觉到头痛,但头痛会在第二天加重。该症状往往持续时间最久,而且是临床治疗中最大的难题。
精神迟缓和意识模糊:为患者报告的一般性症状,往往伴有注意力难以保持和全身疲乏。
记忆困难:可表现为对于受伤事故本身记忆困难,也可表现为对日常情况的记忆困难。
情感因素(神经质和焦虑):可大大影响其他症状的缓解。
呕吐和恶心:成人中不太典型,多发生于青少年和儿童中。
影响治疗效果的因素
过去,根据恢复时间的长短给患者诊断为“简单性”和“复杂性”脑震荡,但实用性有限,因为该诊断只能在患者恢复后方可确定。相反,这些使康复拖延的因素应被归类为影响因素,而非进行子分类的标准。[35]Makdissi M. Is the simple versus complex classification of concussion a valid and useful differentiation? Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(suppl 1):i23-i27.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433420?tool=bestpractice.com总体上,仍然很难预知哪些因素会促使症状持续。[36]Zemek R, Barrowman N, Freedman SB, et al; Pediatric Emergency Research Canada (PERC) Concussion Team. Clinical risk score for persistent postconcussion symptoms among children with acute concussion in the ED. JAMA. 2016;315:1014-1025.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26954410?tool=bestpractice.com部分危险因素会使结果恶化,医师应进行询问。尽管自我报告症状量表上缺乏心理测量数据,但该量表对检测、评估及能否回归比赛的决定作出很大贡献。[33]Alla S, Sullivan SJ, Hale L, et al. Self-report scales/checklists for the measurement of concussion symptoms: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(suppl 1):i3-i12.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433422?tool=bestpractice.com建议对儿童慎用症状量表,因为是否适用于儿科人群还没有进行过心理测量验证。[37]Gioia GA, Schneider JC, Vaughan CG, et al. Which symptom assessments and approaches are uniquely appropriate for paediatric concussion? Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(suppl 1):i13-i22.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433419?tool=bestpractice.com考虑陈旧性头部损伤病史以及其他因素是很重要的,包括但不限于行为问题和受伤后即刻出现的体征和症状。[38]Zemek RL, Farion KJ, Sampson M, et al. Prognosticators of persistent symptoms following pediatric concussion: a systematic review. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167:259-265.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23303474?tool=bestpractice.com对于有持续症状的病例,应探查是否存在环境或情绪因素,可能导致病情加重。
查体
对于每位头部损伤后出现症状的患者,均应进行全面的查体,重点检查头部和颈部及神经系统。除了典型的脑震荡后症状,通常不会观察到神经系统体征,查体也不会显示任何身体异常。[17]Johnston KM, Ptito A, Chankowsky J, et al. New frontiers in diagnostic imaging in concussive head injury. Clin J Sport Med. 2001;11:166-175.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11495321?tool=bestpractice.com有研究报告,患者反应时间变慢,在动态运动评估中姿势不稳。[39]Guskiewicz KM, Ross SE, Marshall SW. Postural stability and neuropsychological deficits after concussion in collegiate athletes. J Athl Train. 2001;36:263-273.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC155417/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12937495?tool=bestpractice.com[40]Guskiewicz KM. Assessment of postural stability following sport-related concussion. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2003;2:24-30.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12831673?tool=bestpractice.com[41]Lau B, Lovell MR, Collins MW, et al. Neurocognitive and symptom predictors of recovery in high school athletes. Clin J Sport Med. 2009;19:216-221.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19423974?tool=bestpractice.com[42]Davis GA, Iverson GL, Guskiewicz KM, et al. Contributions of neuroimaging, balance testing, electrophysiology and blood markers to the assessment of sport-related concussion. Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(suppl 1):i36-i45.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433424?tool=bestpractice.com头部和颈部检查对于诊断潜在的可治疗的头痛病因很重要,如 TMJ 挫伤、牙损伤或颈肌劳损。如果患者格拉斯哥昏迷评分 (GCS)< 15、出现外伤后癫痫发作、颅骨骨折体征、意识丧失、重度和持续性头痛、反复呕吐、顺行性遗忘>5 分钟、逆行性遗忘>30 分钟、遭受高风险性创伤(如道路交通事故、严重的跌落)或有凝血功能障碍,则应考虑入院(和脑影像学检查)。[43]Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Early management of patients with a head injury: a national clinical guideline. May 2009. http://www.sign.ac.uk/ (last accessed 30 June 2016).http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign110.pdf
神经心理学测试
神经心理学测试可采用纸笔或计算机测验,可评估注意力、记忆和执行功能以及反应时间。认知表现会受应激、疲乏、用力及药物因素的影响,因此,应由受过训练的神经心理学医师实施神经心理学评估,以便区分这些因素的影响及脑震荡的影响。研究显示,神经心理学测试具有临床价值,并可持续为脑震荡评估和管理提供重要信息。[44]Aubry M, Cantu R, Dvorak J, et al. Summary and agreement statement of the First International Conference on Concussion in Sport, Vienna 2001: recommendations for the improvement of safety and health of athletes who may suffer concussive injuries. Br J Sports Med. 2002;36:6-10.http://bjsm.bmj.com/content/36/1/6.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11867482?tool=bestpractice.com[45]Broglio SP, Puetz TW. The effect of sport concussion on neurocognitive function, self-report symptoms and postural control: a meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2008;38:53-67.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18081367?tool=bestpractice.com神经心理学测试可用于诊断脑震荡的影响,并监测恢复情况。神经心理学测试还有助于决定运动员能否回归比赛,非运动员患者能否回归学校或工作。它对脑震荡后综合征的评估也有价值,可作为评估认知恢复/减退后主诉的客观指标(如:用来确定脑震荡患者对症状缓解情况的描述是否真实,或是否夸大了感知到的认知功能障碍)。临床医生应确保两次测试有适当的时间间隔,以避免患者对测试刻意的准备,维持测试的有效性。尽管神经心理学测试是脑震荡评估的重要组成部分,但在确定患者是否恢复时,不应将其作为唯一标准。[46]Echemendia RJ, Iverson GL, McCrea M, et al. Advances in neuropsychological assessment of sport-related concussion. Br J Sports Med. 2013;47:294-298.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23479487?tool=bestpractice.com
运动脑震荡评估工具 (SCAT) 等快速评估工具是非常有价值的诊断工具,特别是对于赛场即时评估。SCAT3: sport concussion assessment tool - 3rd edition其他工具包括麦吉尔简要脑震荡评估 (ACE)[47]Johnston KM, Lassonde M, Ptito A. A contemporary neurosurgical approach to sport-related head injury: the McGill concussion protocol. J Am Coll Surg. 2001;192:515-524.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11294409?tool=bestpractice.com和 ImPACT 边线卡。ImPACT: concussion signs and symptoms evaluation不管选择哪种评估工具,平衡性和姿势稳定评估是脑震荡运动员初始评估中的基本要素。
脑影像学检查
脑 CT 和 MRI 对脑震荡评估几乎无用,但如若怀疑有颅内结构损伤或血肿时,则应进行脑 CT 和 MRI 检查。因为 CT 可快速排除颅内出血或骨损伤,因此可采用 CT 扫描。新奥尔良标准或加拿大头部 CT 检查规程可被用作影像学评估指南。[48]Haydel MJ, Preston CA, Mills TJ, et al. Indications for computed tomography in patients with minor head injury. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:100-105.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM200007133430204#t=articleTophttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10891517?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Stiell IG, Wells GA, Vandemheen K, et al. The Canadian CT head rule for patients with minor head injury. Lancet. 2001;357:1391-1396.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11356436?tool=bestpractice.com影像学结果呈阳性的病例可能包括出现长时间意识改变、局灶性神经功能障碍及症状恶化的患者(典型情况有:无法控制的头痛、恶心、呕吐及重度头晕)。[42]Davis GA, Iverson GL, Guskiewicz KM, et al. Contributions of neuroimaging, balance testing, electrophysiology and blood markers to the assessment of sport-related concussion. Br J Sports Med. 2009;43(suppl 1):i36-i45.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19433424?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Stein SC, Spettell C. The head injury severity scale (HISS): a practical classification of closed-head injury. Brain Inj. 1995;9:437-444.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7550215?tool=bestpractice.com[51]Jagoda AS, Bazarian JJ, Bruns JJ, et al. Clinical policy: neuroimaging and decisionmaking in adult mild traumatic brain injury in the acute setting. Ann Emerg Med. 2008;52:714-748.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19027497?tool=bestpractice.com[52]American College of Radiology. ACR appropriateness criteria: head trauma. 2015. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 30 June 2016).https://acsearch.acr.org/docs/69481/Narrative/入院治疗的指征(格拉斯哥昏迷评分 [GCS]< 15 分、出现外伤后癫痫发作、颅骨骨折体征、意识丧失、重度持续性头痛、反复性呕吐、顺行性失忆>5 分钟、逆行性失忆>30 分钟、遭受高风险性创伤 [如道路交通事故、严重的跌落] 或凝血功能障碍)也应被视为进行诊断性影像学检查的明显指征。[43]Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network. Early management of patients with a head injury: a national clinical guideline. May 2009. http://www.sign.ac.uk/ (last accessed 30 June 2016).http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign110.pdf[53]Borg J, Holm L, Cassidy JD, et al. Diagnostic procedures in mild traumatic brain injury: results of the WHO Collaborating Centre Task Force on Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. J Rehabil Med. 2004;(43 Suppl):61-75.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15083871?tool=bestpractice.com脑震荡损伤后进行 CT 扫描或 MRI 等脑部影像学检查,得到的影像学检查结果通常正常。研究表明,脑震荡会导致可在 CT 或结构性 MRI 上检测出来的结构变化,但这些还不足所有病例的 10%。[17]Johnston KM, Ptito A, Chankowsky J, et al. New frontiers in diagnostic imaging in concussive head injury. Clin J Sport Med. 2001;11:166-175.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11495321?tool=bestpractice.com所观察到最常见的结构变化为脑挫伤和不太常见的硬膜外血肿、硬膜下血肿及轴索损伤。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 挫伤和硬膜外血肿部位:(A) 前额叶皮质、(B) 翼区、(C) 颞顶叶皮质(往往在发生对冲伤时)来自 L. Henry 收集的资料 [Citation ends].
脑解剖影像学检查技术(包括梯度回波、灌注及弥散影像学检查)更敏感,但由于缺乏已发布数据,限制了其非研究用途。
功能性影像学检查技术(功能性 MRI)已显示了可以探查脑震荡症状严重程度和恢复情况的激活模式。
其他替代性影像学检查技术(PET、单光子发射 CT [SPECT]、磁共振波谱学及弥散张量影像学检查)也具有良好应用前景,可提供有价值的脑震荡病理生理学信息,但尚未被推荐用于非研究用途。[54]Kutcher JS, McCrory P, Davis G, et al. What evidence exists for new strategies or technologies in the diagnosis of sports concussion and assessment of recovery? Br J Sports Med. 2013;47:299-303.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23479488?tool=bestpractice.com
然而,值得注意的是,PET 和 SPECT 均可通过对脑部灌注不良区显像来揭示有持续症状患者的临床变化情况。[55]Umile EM, Sandel ME, Alavi A, et al. Dynamic imaging in mild traumatic brain injury: support for the theory of medial temporal vulnerability. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2002;83:1506-1513.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12422317?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Chen SH, Kareken DA, Fastenau PS, et al. A study of persistent post-concussion symptoms in mild head trauma using positron emission tomography. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74:326-332.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12588917?tool=bestpractice.com[57]Bonne O, Gilboa A, Louzoun Y, et al. Cerebral blood flow in chronic symptomatic mild traumatic brain injury. Psychiatry Res. 2003;124:141-152.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14623066?tool=bestpractice.com[58]Abu-Judeh HH, Parker R, Singh M, et al. SPET brain perfusion imaging in mild traumatic brain injury without loss of consciousness and normal computed tomography. Nucl Med Commun. 1999;20:505-510.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10451861?tool=bestpractice.com