凡是有感染证据和呼吸道症状的患者,都应该进行肺炎旁胸腔积液的检查,尤其是那些在接受针对肺炎的抗生素治疗之后没有改善的患者。[3]Light RW. A new classification of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Chest. 1995;108:299-301.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/data/Journals/CHEST/21718/299.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7634854?tool=bestpractice.com
初步检查可选择胸片,如果能看到明显的积液,则需进行诊断性胸腔穿刺术(胸腔针吸)。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Havelock T, Teoh R, Laws D, et al. Pleural procedures and thoracic ultrasound: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii61-ii76.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/i61.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696688?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com若穿刺抽出明显的脓液,则可诊断为脓胸,但若没有,则需进一步进行生化及微生物检测,以诊断是否为复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液。
临床病史
起病症状
脓胸的关键症状是呼吸困难(继发于大量胸膜腔积液或肺炎)、发热和胸膜炎性胸痛(深呼吸、咳嗽、喷嚏和扩胸运动时疼痛加剧)。其他伴随症状包括肺炎症状(排痰性咳嗽、绿色或铁锈色痰、呼吸短促)和感染的全身症状(厌食、不适感、疲乏、寒战)。
这些患者通常呈现亚急性病史,在入院前症状的平均持续时间为 2 周。[11]Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa042473#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15745977?tool=bestpractice.com[16]Ferguson AD, Prescott RJ, Selkon JB, et al. The clinical course and management of thoracic empyema. QJM. 1996;89;285-289.http://qjmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/89/4/285.full-text.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8733515?tool=bestpractice.com肺炎患者经抗生素治疗无效或者临床状况恶化,提示复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液恶化或脓胸的发生。
缺乏典型的临床体征可能会造成诊断延误。免疫功能受损的患者或正在接受抗生素治疗的患者,就诊时提示感染的临床症状可能很少。厌氧菌性脓胸患者病程进展缓慢,具体表现为体重减轻、全身不适以及疲乏。
既往病史
发生脓胸的大部分患者往往存在近期的相关病史,包括肺炎、胸部外伤、以及各种胸膜腔医源性操作,比如胸科手术、或者胸腔置管引流 (4%)、胸腔穿刺术(胸腔针吸)、胸腔闭式引流术(胸腔置管引流)以及气胸或胸腔积液抽吸等内科操作。[4]Rahman NM, Davies RJO. Effusions from infections: Parapneumonic effusion and empyema. In: Light RW, Lee YCG, eds. Textbook of Pleural Disease. 2nd ed. London: Hodder & Stoughton; 2008:341-366.
患者病史中可能有肺炎以及继发脓胸的易感因素,例如:既往的肺部基础疾病(如支气管扩张症、慢性阻塞性肺疾病 [COPD]、肺癌)或是误吸风险升高的状况(如卒中,使用鼻胃管或气管插管的情况)。免疫功能受损的患者(例如:血液病、化疗、HIV 或营养不良所致)发生脓胸的风险升高。
个人史
临床检查
体格检查能找出胸膜腔积液的证据,合并或不合并全身感染的体征。
血液检查
凡是就诊时疑似有脓胸的患者,均应进行全血细胞计数、C 反应蛋白 (CRP) 和血培养检查。作为感染全身反应的一部分,脓胸患者的白细胞 (WBC) 计数和 CRP 会升高。即使胸水培养呈阴性,特定病原体的血培养仍可能呈阳性。理想情况下,如果患者的临床状况允许,应在开始抗生素治疗之前进行血培养。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com
初步影像学检查
初步检查首选胸部 X 线和胸部超声,凡是疑似脓胸的患者均应进行这两项检查。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com胸部 CT 仅应用于复杂病例(例如:针对治疗无效的儿童或对诊断存在疑虑时)。[17]Chibuk T, Cohen E, Robinson J, et al; Canadian Paediatric Society. Paediatric complicated pneumonia: diagnosis and management of empyema. Paediatr Child Health. 2011;16:425-429.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3200394/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22851899?tool=bestpractice.com[18]Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand. Paediatric empyema thoracis: recommendations for management. 2011. http://www.thoracic.org.au (last accessed 21 July 2016).http://www.thoracic.org.au/journal-publishing/command/download_file/id/24/filename/PaediatricEmpyemaThoracisPositionStatementTSANZFINAL.pdf
凡是表现出呼吸道症状,并找到脓毒症证据的患者,均应紧急进行胸部 X 线片检查,因为它能显示是否发生胸膜腔积液。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com就发现积液而言,侧卧位 CXR 比前后位 CXR 更为灵敏,但它已被胸部超声取代。若存在包裹性积液,说明有脓胸。脓胸的影像可能是一个以胸膜为基底的“D”形,从而被误认为是肺肿块。可能还会看到相关的由肺炎造成的肺实变,而且在仰卧位通气患者中,胸膜腔积液会表现为单侧弥漫性透过度减低。若在侧卧位胸部 X 线检查上发现积液深度大于 10 mm 且伴有感染证据,需进行胸腔穿刺术(胸腔针吸)。[2]Colice GL, Curtis A, Deslauriers J, et al. Medical and surgical treatment of parapneumonic effusions: an evidence-based guideline. Chest. 2000;118:1158-1171. [Erratum in: Chest. 2001;119:319.]http://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(15)37722-9/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11035692?tool=bestpractice.com
在探测胸腔积液方面,胸部超声比胸部 X 线更为灵敏。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Havelock T, Teoh R, Laws D, et al. Pleural procedures and thoracic ultrasound: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii61-ii76.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/i61.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696688?tool=bestpractice.com胸部超声中提示脓胸的特征包括强回声液体、包裹和分隔。[19]Yang PC, Luh KT, Chang DB. et al. Value of sonography in determining the nature of pleural effusion: analysis of 320 cases. Am J Roentgenol. 1992;159:29-33.http://www.ajronline.org/doi/pdf/10.2214/ajr.159.1.1609716http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1609716?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 严重分隔性脓胸的超声影像援引牛津 RTU Najib Rahman 的资料 [Citation ends].脓胸常常伴有一侧膈肌上抬或肺牵拉,因此所有操作最好在影像引导下进行。建议使用超声引导胸腔穿刺术(胸腔针吸),以减少其相关并发症的发生率。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Havelock T, Teoh R, Laws D, et al. Pleural procedures and thoracic ultrasound: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii61-ii76.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/i61.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696688?tool=bestpractice.com[20]Jones PW, Moyers JP, Rogers JT, et al. Ultrasound-guided thoracentesis: is it a safer method? Chest. 2003;123:418-423.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1081311http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12576360?tool=bestpractice.com超声引导的胸腔穿刺术:有中等质量证据显示,与胸腔盲穿刺的历史队列相比,超声引导胸腔穿刺术的并发症发生率较低。[20]Jones PW, Moyers JP, Rogers JT, et al. Ultrasound-guided thoracentesis: is it a safer method? Chest. 2003;123:418-423.http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/article.aspx?articleid=1081311http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12576360?tool=bestpractice.com受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。还建议使用超声引导胸腔引流置管,尤其是对于尺寸较小或包裹性的积液。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
胸腔穿刺术
凡是有感染证据合并明显胸膜腔积液的患者,均应施行胸腔穿刺术(胸腔穿刺)。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[14]Havelock T, Teoh R, Laws D, et al. Pleural procedures and thoracic ultrasound: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii61-ii76.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/i61.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696688?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Colice GL, Curtis A, Deslauriers J, et al. Medical and surgical treatment of parapneumonic effusions: an evidence-based guideline. Chest. 2000;118:1158-1171. [Erratum in: Chest. 2001;119:319.]http://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692(15)37722-9/fulltexthttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11035692?tool=bestpractice.com[21]American College of Radiology; Society of Interventional Radiology; Society for Pediatric Radiology. Practice Parameters: ACR–SIR–SPR practice parameter for specifications and performance of image-guided percutaneous drainage/aspiration of abscesses and fluid collections (PDAFC). August 2014. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 21 July 2016).http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/Documents/PGTS/guidelines/PDAFC.pdf][15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com
若穿刺抽出明显的脓液,除了需进行胸水微生物学检查以指导抗生素治疗以外,无需再进行其他检查即可诊断为脓胸。如果抽出物没有明显脓液,则需进一步分析检查,以评估是否为复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液。这涉及测定胸水 pH 值、总蛋白质浓度、LDH 水平、葡萄糖浓度和白细胞分类。
所有样本均应送涂片镜检查、培养和药敏试验。[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com当诊断不明时可能需要细胞学检测(例如:用于检测恶性胸膜腔积液中的恶性细胞)。
胸水外观:脓胸的特点是有明显的脓液。复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液可能为浆液或浑浊液体。
胸水气味:恶臭气味说明存在厌氧菌感染。
胸水 pH 值:样本应存放在厌氧条件中。[22]Rahman NM, Mishra EK, Davies HE, et al. Clinically important factors influencing the diagnostic measurement of pleural fluid pH and glucose. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178:483-490.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2643213/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18556632?tool=bestpractice.com局部麻醉会导致 pH 值假性降低。医生应备有血气分析仪,以便立即检测样本,若有指征则能够立即施行胸腔引流置管。[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com如果样本是明显的脓液,则不应测试 pH 值,因为它会损坏分析仪。
胸水总蛋白质浓度:如果抽出明显脓液,则不要求进行蛋白质浓度分析。
胸水 LDH 水平:如果抽出明显脓液,则不要求进行 LDH 水平分析。
胸水葡萄糖浓度:如果抽出明显脓液,则不要求进行葡萄糖分析。如果不能获得准确的胸水 pH 值,可使用低葡萄糖水平作为判定是否需要立即施行胸腔引流置管的复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液的替代预测指标。已证实,在这种情况下,胸水葡萄糖是一项很可靠的预测指标。[23]Heffner JE, Brown LK, Barbieri C, et al. Pleural fluid chemical analysis in parapneumonic effusions. A meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:1700-1708.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7767510?tool=bestpractice.com
胸水白细胞分类:分叶核的白细胞是占主导地位 (>90%) 的细胞类型。若渗出物中淋巴细胞占主导地位,则是否患有结核或恶性肿瘤。
胸水涂片镜检、培养和药敏检查:60%~70% 的样本的革兰氏染色或培养呈阳性。[11]Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa042473#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15745977?tool=bestpractice.com可用于指导抗生素治疗。
进一步的影像学检查
若对诊断还有疑虑或为了确认胸腔引流的正确位置,可进行其他影像学检查。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com
造影剂增强胸部 CT 有助于区别脓胸与其他胸腔积液和肺疾病,而且检查时应采用组织相位对比技术。[24]Kearney SE, Davies CW, Davies RJ, et al. Computed tomography and ultrasound in parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Radiol. 2000;55:542-547.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10924379?tool=bestpractice.com
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 脓胸的 CT 扫描援引牛津 RTU Najib Rahman 的资料 [Citation ends].
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 脓胸的 CT 扫描援引牛津 RTU Najib Rahman 的资料 [Citation ends].胸膜造影剂增强是脓胸的特征。胸膜分裂征是指脏层和壁层胸膜增强,中间夹置液体。可见胸膜增厚,但该表现也可见于恶性肿瘤。造影剂增强胸部 CT 对于确认胸腔引流的正确位置尤其有用,而且也有助于手术规划。
MRI 不能够准确地诊断脓胸,因此通常仅用于不能实施造影剂增强 CT 检查的患者。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[25]Evans AL, Gleeson FV. Radiology in pleural disease: state of the art. Respirology. 2004;9:300-312.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15363000?tool=bestpractice.com它还会显示有分隔、包裹性胸水或胸壁侵犯。
[Figure caption and citation for the preceding image starts]: 分隔性脓胸的 MRI 扫描援引牛津 RTU Najib Rahman 的资料 [Citation ends].
PET 扫描是另外一种可取的影像学技术,但因不能区别恶性肿瘤和脓胸,其使用具有局限性。[26]Duysinx B, Nguyen D, Louis R, et al. Evaluation of pleural disease with 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging. Chest. 2004;125:489-493.http://publications.chestnet.org/data/Journals/CHEST/22005/489.pdfhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14769729?tool=bestpractice.com[15]Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii4.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696692?tool=bestpractice.com
由于胸膜感染中有 40% 仍无法确定致病病原体,胸水 PCR 可能有助于识别病原体,以便选用特定的抗生素。[11]Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa042473#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15745977?tool=bestpractice.com但是,还需要进一步的前瞻性证据支持,才能推荐将该项检查常规用于临床。