所有成人在都应根据当地的微生物学指南,针对可能的致病病原体,包括需氧和厌氧病原体,接受初始的经验性静脉抗生素注射。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
青霉素、加 β-内酰胺酶的青霉素、头孢菌素和甲硝唑能有效穿透胸膜腔。氨基糖苷类对胸膜腔的穿透力差且在酸性环境中疗效降低,应避免使用。对青霉素过敏的患者可使用克林霉素,联合或不联合头孢菌素(例如:头孢呋辛)或环丙沙星进行治疗。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
不建议抗生素胸腔内注射给药。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
当细菌培养为阴性时,抗生素应覆盖常见的社区获得性细菌病原体和厌氧病原体。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
应对所有患者使用治疗厌氧菌感染的抗生素,除非有培养显示存在肺炎球菌感染。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
不建议使用大环内酯类抗生素,除非存在“非典型”病原体的客观证据或临床高度怀疑。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
社区获得性脓胸应使用第二代头孢菌素(例如:头孢呋辛)或 β-内酰胺抗生素(例如:阿莫西林/克拉维酸盐)加上一种厌氧菌抗生素(例如:甲硝唑)进行治疗。有些国家/地区可能没有静脉注射阿莫西林/克拉维酸盐,则可使用诸如氨苄西林/舒巴坦等广谱抗生素替代。如果此方案不成功,则可采用如下替代性的二线药物:氯霉素、碳青霉烯类(例如:美罗培南)、第三代头孢菌素(例如:头孢曲松)或广谱抗假单胞菌青霉素(例如:哌拉西林/他唑巴坦)。
医院获得性脓胸的经验性抗生素治疗需要更广谱的抗生素(包括 MRSA 和厌氧菌),[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com例如:抗假单胞菌青霉素(如:哌拉西林/他唑巴坦、替卡西林/克拉维酸盐)、碳青霉烯类(如:美罗培南)、第三代头孢菌素(例如:头孢曲松)或环丙沙星。有高达 25% 的医院获得性脓胸病例伴有 MRSA 感染,因此所有患者(尤其是术后及外伤后)均应接受覆盖金黄色葡萄球菌的抗生素治疗。[29]Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:e18-e55.http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/52/3/e18.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21208910?tool=bestpractice.com
对患有脓胸或复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液的成人来说,必须立即实施胸腔引流置管。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
胸腔引流管应由能够胜任的医务人员在影像(超声)引导下插入,以降低诸如器官损害、出血、皮下气肿、死亡等并发症的风险。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[30]Kesieme EB, Dongo A, Ezemba N, et al. Tube thoracostomy: complications and its management. Pulm Med. 2012;2012:256878.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3195434/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22028963?tool=bestpractice.com
目前尚无关于引流使用胸管的最佳尺寸的共识。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com胸腔引流管的最佳尺寸仍倍受争议,虽然小口径胸腔引流管 (10F-14F) 和大口径胸腔引流管 (20F-28F) 的效果可能相同。[31]Tattersall DJ, Traill ZC, Gleeson FV. Chest drains: does size matter? Clin Radiol. 2000;55:415-421.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10873685?tool=bestpractice.com对于小口径胸腔引流管以及当胸腔引流管堵塞时,建议用生理盐水定期冲洗。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
应将胸腔引流管保持原位,直至积液消失且引流停止。
抗生素和胸腔闭式引流术(胸腔引流置管)治疗无效的患者应转诊至胸外科医生,考虑采取手术干预。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com治疗无效是基于持续发热、胸水引流失败以及炎症标志物持续上升的情况做出的临床判断。约 30% 患者需要手术。[11]Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa042473#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15745977?tool=bestpractice.com
转诊进行外科手术的最佳时机尚不明确。指南建议在患者接受治疗 5 至 7 天后疗效不佳时,可转诊至外科。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com[10]Balfour-Lynn IM, Abrahamson E, Cohen G, et al. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children. Thorax. 2005;60(suppl. 1):1-21.http://thorax.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/60/suppl_1/i1http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15681514?tool=bestpractice.com一些权威机构主张所有患者立即接受手术。已发现在 2 期和 3 期脓胸患者中,手术清创或剥脱术在治疗成功率和减少住院时间方面的效果优于单用管状胸廓造口术。对于不适合手术干预并且无法接受单肺通气进行电视辅助胸腔镜手术 (VATS) 的 2 期脓胸患者,应考虑进行胸膜腔内纤维蛋白溶解。一些研究证实,对于 3 期脓胸患者,VATS 和开放剥脱术一样有效。但是,有一些病例系列报告其转换为开放剥脱术的比例较高(大约 40%)。应通过开放手术实施 3 期脓胸剥脱术,特别是病程超过 5 周的有症状患者;在经验丰富的病房,VATS 可以是一个治疗选择,特别是在外科转诊初期。[27]Scarci M, Abah U, Solli P, et al. EACTS expert consensus statement for surgical management of pleural empyema. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2015;48:642-653.http://ejcts.oxfordjournals.org/content/48/5/642.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26254467?tool=bestpractice.com
一线手术方法是 VATS,因为它是一种侵入性较小的操作,但转换为开胸术的机率高达 30%。
局部麻醉胸腔镜检查有助于治疗脓胸,因为它能分离分隔和黏连并有利于准确的胸管定位和引流,但并不常规使用,因为还需要进行大规模前瞻性随机试验来阐明其对脓胸的治疗作用。[32]Rahman NM, Ali NJ, Brown G, et al. Local anaesthetic thoracoscopy: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii54-ii60.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii54.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696694?tool=bestpractice.com
患者评估时必须有胸外科医生参加,即使是麻醉评估。在病情较不稳定的患者中可考虑采取较为温和的外科干涉,诸如肋骨切除或放置大口径胸管,有些病例可使用硬膜外麻醉或局部麻醉代替全身麻醉,具体术式视医生的熟练度和机构的医疗条件而定。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
对于积液引流无效、有持续性脓毒症且不能耐受全身麻醉的患者,应重新进行胸部影像学检查作再次评估,与胸外科医生讨论后,可考虑在影像引导下放置另一根小口径导管或大口径胸管或胸膜腔内给予纤溶药物。[1]Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.http://thorax.bmj.com/content/65/Suppl_2/ii41.fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20696693?tool=bestpractice.com
如果不能施行 VATS,应考虑使用胸膜腔内纤溶药物,如果它不能有效解决脓胸,则应与胸外科医生讨论进一步手术选择。其中包括小切口开胸术、胸膜剥脱术(一项胸部大手术,涉及排出胸膜腔中的脓液和碎屑并去除脏层和壁层胸膜内的纤维组织)以及开胸引流。对于不适合手术的患者,应考虑使用胸腔内纤溶药物。
对于在胸管引流后严重积液并未得到缓解且引起呼吸窘迫、血流动力学不稳定且不适合手术(例如:因合并症原因)的老年患者,如果当地医疗机构不能实施 VATS,应考虑使用胸腔内纤溶剂(例如:链激酶或尿激酶)。[34]Cameron R, Davies HR. Intra-pleural fibrinolytic therapy versus conservative management in the treatment of adult parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(2):CD002312.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18425881?tool=bestpractice.com[35]Bouros D, Tzouvelekis A, Antoniou KM, et al. Intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy for pleural infection. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2007;20:616-626.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17049447?tool=bestpractice.com
在患有复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液和脓胸的成人中,胸腔内链激酶并不能降低死亡率或降低手术的需求。[11]Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa042473#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15745977?tool=bestpractice.com胸腔内纤溶剂:有高质量的证据显示在患有复杂性肺炎旁胸腔积液和脓胸的成人中,链激酶并不能降低死亡率或减少手术的需求。[11]Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa042473#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15745977?tool=bestpractice.com系统评价或者受试者>200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)。虽然偶尔会发生胸腔内链激酶过敏反应,但它也不会增加出血的风险。同样可以使用尿激酶。如果没有链激酶和尿激酶,则可使用阿替普酶作为替代药物,它是一种重组组织纤溶酶原激活物 (t-PA)。[36]Froudarakis ME, Kouliatsis G, Steiropoulos P, et al. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in the treatment of pleural infections in adults. Respir Med. 2008;102:1694-1700.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18824340?tool=bestpractice.com[37]Goralski JL, Bromberg PA, Haithcock B. Intrapleural hemorrhage after administration of tPA: a case report and review of the literature. Ther Adv Respir Dis. 2009;3:295-300.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19934281?tool=bestpractice.com[38]Rahman NM, Maskell NA, West A, et al. Intrapleural use of tissue plasminogen activator and DNase in pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:518-526.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21830966?tool=bestpractice.com