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Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.

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Balfour-Lynn IM, Abrahamson E, Cohen G, et al. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children. Thorax. 2005;60(suppl. 1):1-21.

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Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.

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Scarci M, Abah U, Solli P, et al. EACTS expert consensus statement for surgical management of pleural empyema. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2015;48:642-653.

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Janda S, Swiston J. Intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy for treatment of adult parapneumonic effusions and empyemas: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2012;142:401-411.

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1.  Davies HE, Davies RJ, Davies CW. Management of pleural infection in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii41-ii53.

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2.  Colice GL, Curtis A, Deslauriers J, et al. Medical and surgical treatment of parapneumonic effusions: an evidence-based guideline. Chest. 2000;118:1158-1171. [Erratum in: Chest. 2001;119:319.]

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3.  Light RW. A new classification of parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Chest. 1995;108:299-301.

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4.  Rahman NM, Davies RJO. Effusions from infections: Parapneumonic effusion and empyema. In: Light RW, Lee YCG, eds. Textbook of Pleural Disease. 2nd ed. London: Hodder & Stoughton; 2008:341-366.

5.  Roxburgh CS, Youngson GG. Childhood empyema in North-East Scotland over the past 15 years. Scott Med J. 2007;52:25-27.

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6.  Desrumaux A, Francois P, Pascal C, et al. Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of childhood parapneumonic empyemas. Arch Pediatr. 2007;14:1298-1303.

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7.  Munoz-Almagro C, Jordan I, Gene A, et al. Emergence of invasive pneumococcal disease caused by nonvaccine serotypes in the era of 7-valent conjugate vaccine. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:174-182.

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8.  Finley C, Clifton J, Fitzgerald JM, et al. Empyema: an increasing concern in Canada. Can Respir J. 2008;15:85-89.

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9.  Farjah F, Symons RG, Krishnadasan B, et al. Management of pleural space infections: a population-based analysis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2007;133:346-351.

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10.  Balfour-Lynn IM, Abrahamson E, Cohen G, et al. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children. Thorax. 2005;60(suppl. 1):1-21.

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11.  Maskell NA, Davies CW, Nunn AJ, et al. U.K. controlled trial of intrapleural streptokinase for pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:865-874.

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12.  Hardie W, Bokulic R, Garcia VF, et al. Pneumococcal pleural empyemas in children. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22:1057-1063.

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13.  Rees JH, Spencer DA, Parikh D, et al. Increase in incidence of childhood empyema in West Midlands, UK. Lancet. 1997;349:402.

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14.  Havelock T, Teoh R, Laws D, et al. Pleural procedures and thoracic ultrasound: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii61-ii76.

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15.  Hooper C, Lee YC, Maskell N. Investigation of a unilateral pleural effusion in adults: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii4-ii17.

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16.  Ferguson AD, Prescott RJ, Selkon JB, et al. The clinical course and management of thoracic empyema. QJM. 1996;89;285-289.

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17.  Chibuk T, Cohen E, Robinson J, et al; Canadian Paediatric Society. Paediatric complicated pneumonia: diagnosis and management of empyema. Paediatr Child Health. 2011;16:425-429.

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18.  Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand. Paediatric empyema thoracis: recommendations for management. 2011. http://www.thoracic.org.au (last accessed 21 July 2016).

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19.  Yang PC, Luh KT, Chang DB. et al. Value of sonography in determining the nature of pleural effusion: analysis of 320 cases. Am J Roentgenol. 1992;159:29-33.

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20.  Jones PW, Moyers JP, Rogers JT, et al. Ultrasound-guided thoracentesis: is it a safer method? Chest. 2003;123:418-423.

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21.  American College of Radiology; Society of Interventional Radiology; Society for Pediatric Radiology. Practice Parameters: ACR–SIR–SPR practice parameter for specifications and performance of image-guided percutaneous drainage/aspiration of abscesses and fluid collections (PDAFC). August 2014. http://www.acr.org/ (last accessed 21 July 2016).

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22.  Rahman NM, Mishra EK, Davies HE, et al. Clinically important factors influencing the diagnostic measurement of pleural fluid pH and glucose. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;178:483-490.

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23.  Heffner JE, Brown LK, Barbieri C, et al. Pleural fluid chemical analysis in parapneumonic effusions. A meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;151:1700-1708.

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24.  Kearney SE, Davies CW, Davies RJ, et al. Computed tomography and ultrasound in parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Clin Radiol. 2000;55:542-547.

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25.  Evans AL, Gleeson FV. Radiology in pleural disease: state of the art. Respirology. 2004;9:300-312.

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26.  Duysinx B, Nguyen D, Louis R, et al. Evaluation of pleural disease with 18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging. Chest. 2004;125:489-493.

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27.  Scarci M, Abah U, Solli P, et al. EACTS expert consensus statement for surgical management of pleural empyema. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2015;48:642-653.

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28.  Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, et al. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax. 2009;64(suppl 3):iii1-iii55.

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29.  Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:e18-e55.

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30.  Kesieme EB, Dongo A, Ezemba N, et al. Tube thoracostomy: complications and its management. Pulm Med. 2012;2012:256878.

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31.  Tattersall DJ, Traill ZC, Gleeson FV. Chest drains: does size matter? Clin Radiol. 2000;55:415-421.

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32.  Rahman NM, Ali NJ, Brown G, et al. Local anaesthetic thoracoscopy: British Thoracic Society pleural disease guideline 2010. Thorax. 2010;65(suppl 2):ii54-ii60.

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33.  Janda S, Swiston J. Intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy for treatment of adult parapneumonic effusions and empyemas: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2012;142:401-411.

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34.  Cameron R, Davies HR. Intra-pleural fibrinolytic therapy versus conservative management in the treatment of adult parapneumonic effusions and empyema. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(2):CD002312.

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35.  Bouros D, Tzouvelekis A, Antoniou KM, et al. Intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy for pleural infection. Pulm Pharmacol Ther. 2007;20:616-626.

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36.  Froudarakis ME, Kouliatsis G, Steiropoulos P, et al. Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in the treatment of pleural infections in adults. Respir Med. 2008;102:1694-1700.

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37.  Goralski JL, Bromberg PA, Haithcock B. Intrapleural hemorrhage after administration of tPA: a case report and review of the literature. Ther Adv Respir Dis. 2009;3:295-300.

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38.  Rahman NM, Maskell NA, West A, et al. Intrapleural use of tissue plasminogen activator and DNase in pleural infection. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:518-526.

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39.  Paraskakis E, Vergadi E, Chatzimichael A, et al. Current evidence for the management of paediatric parapneumonic effusions. Curr Med Res Opin. 2012;28:1179-1192.

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40.  Thomson AH, Hull J, Kumar MR, et al. Randomised trial of intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax. 2002;57:343-347.

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41.  Marhuenda C, Barceló C, Fuentes I, et al. Urokinase versus VATS for treatment of empyema: a randomized multicenter clinical trial. Pediatrics. 2014;134:e1301-e1307.

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42.  St Peter SD, Tsao K, Harrison C, et al. Thoracoscopic decortication vs tube thoracostomy with fibrinolysis for empyema in children: a prospective, randomized trial. J Pediatr Surg. 2009;44:106-111.

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