治疗的目的是恢复局部灌注和改善氧输送,从而逆转低血压,预防灌注不足造成的器官损伤。除严重过敏反应外(需要立即肌内注射肾上腺素),容量复苏普遍用作休克的一线治疗方案。[47]Joint Task Force on Practice Parameters; American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology; American College of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology; et al. The diagnosis and management of anaphylaxis: an updated practice parameter. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005 Mar;115(3 suppl 2):S483-523.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15753926?tool=bestpractice.com[48]Lavonas EJ, Drennan IR, Gabrielli A, et al. Part 10: special circumstances of resuscitation: 2015 American Heart Association guidelines update for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation. 2015 Nov 3;132(18 suppl 2):S501-18.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/132/18_suppl_2/S501.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26472998?tool=bestpractice.com[49]Truhlár A, Deakinc CD, Soar J, et al. European Resuscitation Council guidelines for resuscitation 2015: section 4 - cardiac arrest in special circumstances. Resuscitation. 2015 Oct;95:148-201.http://www.cprguidelines.eu/assets/downloads/guidelines/S0300-9572(15)00329-9_main.pdf? 随着检查的进行,在静脉补液反应和可能病因的指导下实施进一步干预。已经发布了各种不同亚型的休克的循证指南,涵盖感染性休克和急性心力衰竭,[2]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock - 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Nieminen MS, Böhm M, Cowie MR, et al. Executive summary of the guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of acute heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2005 Feb;26(4):384-416.http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/4/384http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15681577?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2016 Aug;18(8):891-975.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejhf.592/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27207191?tool=bestpractice.com[50]Davis AL, Carcillo JA, Aneja RK, et al. American College of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice parameters for hemodynamic support of pediatric and neonatal septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2017 Jun;45(6):1061-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28509730?tool=bestpractice.com但并不用于处理不明原因的休克。危重症医疗团队的早期介入对休克患者的优化治疗较为重要。
气道、呼吸和循环
与任何危重患者一样, 气道通畅是第一要务,建议频繁进行再评估。在确保气道通畅后,根据需要使用面罩或鼻管给予高流量氧,通常目标为动脉血氧饱和度达到 94%-98%。[51]O'Driscoll BR, Howard LS, Earis J, et al. BTS guideline for oxygen use in adults in healthcare and emergency settings. Thorax. 2017 Jun;72(suppl 1):ii1-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28507176?tool=bestpractice.com 现已发现常规吸氧达到较高的氧饱和度与急性心肌梗死的冠脉血管收缩有关联。[52]McNulty PH, King N, Scott S, et al. Effects of supplemental oxygen administration on coronary blood flow in patients undergoing cardiac catheterization. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005 Mar;288(3):H1057-62.http://ajpheart.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/288/3/H1057http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15706043?tool=bestpractice.com[53]Rawles JM, Kenmure AC. Controlled trial of oxygen in uncomplicated myocardial infarction. Br Med J. 1976 May 8;1(6018):1121-3.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1639993/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/773507?tool=bestpractice.com 目标是充分的氧合作用而不是常规的过度氧合作用。休克复苏中采取正压通气(持续气道正压通气 [continuous positive airway pressure, CPAP] 或双水平气道正压通气 [bilevel positive airway pressure, BiPAP])存在争议,文献中尚无良好的证据支持。
静脉补液旨在通过增加血管内容量和前负荷以提高灌注。除了明显的肺水肿病患者外,对大多数患者的获益超过危害。如果怀疑主动脉动脉瘤破裂,收缩压应维持在不超过 100 mmHg。及早输液比输注的液体种类(晶体液或胶体液)更重要。[54]Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, et al; the SAFE study investigators. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004 May 27;350(22):2247-56.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa040232#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15163774?tool=bestpractice.com[55]Roberts I, Blackhall K, Alderson P, et al. Human albumin solution for resuscitation and volume expansion in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011 Nov 9;(11):CD001208.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001208.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22071799?tool=bestpractice.com[56]Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Evans DJ, et al. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018 Aug 3;(8):CD000567.https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD000567.pub7/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30073665?tool=bestpractice.com [
]How do colloids compare with crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill people?https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.2307/full显示答案对于危重症的重症监护患者,平衡晶体液可能优于生理盐水。[57]Semler MW, Self WH, Wanderer JP, et al. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 2018 Mar 1;378(9):829-39.https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1711584?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dpubmedhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29485925?tool=bestpractice.com应通过一个大口径外周静脉留置针进行输液。可随后插入中心静脉导管来进行液体管理。对急性失血(出血)患者或慢性红细胞丢失引起重症贫血的患者应给予血液制品。疑似心源性休克患者需要谨慎;若没有容量超负荷的征象,可以谨慎的给予静脉输液。
监测
连续监测是必要的,以监测对治疗的反应和指导治疗。这包括临床观察、反复监测血压、呼吸频率、氧饱和度、脉搏、意识水平以及心电图 (ECG) 跟踪监测。经由动脉导管直接血压测量优于血压测量法,因为它更精确,允许连续监测,并提供动脉采血通道。[1]Antonelli M, Levy M, Andrews PJ, et al. Hemodynamic monitoring in shock and implications for management: international consensus conference, Paris, France, 27-28 April 2006. Intensive Care Med. 2007 Apr;33(4):575-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17285286?tool=bestpractice.com 治疗依赖于对这些变量的连续监测,并根据其反应对治疗进行指导。
用于难治性低血压的血管加压药
血管加压药(优选 α-受体激动剂)通常被推荐用于容量复苏难以治疗的低血压患者。只有经过充分容量复苏后,才建议使用血管加压药。[2]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock - 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[3]Nieminen MS, Böhm M, Cowie MR, et al. Executive summary of the guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of acute heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2005 Feb;26(4):384-416.http://eurheartj.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/26/4/384http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15681577?tool=bestpractice.com[4]Ponikowski P, Voors AA, Anker SD, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail. 2016 Aug;18(8):891-975.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ejhf.592/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27207191?tool=bestpractice.com 治疗性血管收缩的目的是扭转血管张力和血管内容量之间不匹配的问题。
在随机对照试验中,重要的临床结果并没有显示各种血管加压药物之间存在差异。[58]Annane D, Vignon P, Renault A, et al. Norepinephrine plus dobutamine versus epinephrine alone for management of septic shock: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007 Aug 25;370(9588):676-84.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17720019?tool=bestpractice.com[59]Russell JA, Walley KR, Singer J, et al. Vasopressin versus norepinephrine infusion in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2008 Feb 28;358(9):877-87.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa067373#t=articlehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18305265?tool=bestpractice.com[5]De Backer D, Biston P, Devriendt J, et al; SOAP II Investigators. Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock. N Engl J Med. 2010 Mar 4;362(9):779-89.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20200382?tool=bestpractice.com[60]Patel GP, Grahe JS, Sperry M, et al. Efficacy and safety of dopamine versus norepinephrine in the management of septic shock. Shock. 2010 Apr;33(4):375-80.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19851126?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,去甲肾上腺素诱导的心律失常比肾上腺素或多巴胺要少。[5]De Backer D, Biston P, Devriendt J, et al; SOAP II Investigators. Comparison of dopamine and norepinephrine in the treatment of shock. N Engl J Med. 2010 Mar 4;362(9):779-89.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20200382?tool=bestpractice.com[61]Levy JH. Treating shock - old drugs, new ideas. N Engl J Med. 2010 Mar 4;362(9):841-3.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20200389?tool=bestpractice.com[62]De Backer D, Aldecoa C, Njimi H, et al. Dopamine versus norepinephrine in the treatment of septic shock: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2012 Mar;40(3):725-30.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22036860?tool=bestpractice.com[63]Vasu TS, Cavallazzi R, Hirani A, et al. Norepinephrine or dopamine for septic shock: systematic review of randomized clinical trials. J Intensive Care Med. 2012 May-Jun;27(3):172-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21436167?tool=bestpractice.com[64]Zhao Y, Wang Q, Zang B. Dopamine versus norepinephrine for septic shock: a systemic review [in Chinese]. CJEBM. 2012;12:679-85.[65]Gamper G, Havel C, Arrich J, et al. Vasopressors for hypotensive shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Feb 15;(2):CD003709.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD003709.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26878401?tool=bestpractice.com 还有证据支持使用加压素作为一种安全、有效的血管加压药,用于感染性休克的治疗。[2]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock - 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[66]Serpa Neto A, Nassar AP Júnior, Cardoso SO, et al. Vasopressin and terlipressin in adult vasodilatory shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials. Crit Care. 2012 Aug 14;16(4):R154.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3580743/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22889256?tool=bestpractice.com
通常对剂量进行调节以使平均动脉血压达到≥65 mmHg,或收缩压≥90 mmHg。[1]Antonelli M, Levy M, Andrews PJ, et al. Hemodynamic monitoring in shock and implications for management: international consensus conference, Paris, France, 27-28 April 2006. Intensive Care Med. 2007 Apr;33(4):575-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17285286?tool=bestpractice.com[2]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock - 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[67]Asfar P, Meziani F, Hamel JF, et al. High versus low blood-pressure target in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2014 Apr 24;370(17):1583-93.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24635770?tool=bestpractice.com
血管加压药会增加组织缺血和坏死的风险,并呈剂量依赖性。
根本病因的治疗
对于大多数休克患者而言,容量复苏和血管加压药仅仅只是赢得了一些时间。成功逆转休克需要专门针对休克主要病因进行治疗(例如心源性休克、心包填塞、肺栓塞、过敏性休克、败血症、因创伤而致的失血性休克、张力性气胸)。连续和反复不断地评估患者的个体状况来指导具体治疗的选择。
心源性休克(继发于大面积心肌梗死)需要紧急冠状动脉血运重建,可由血管成形术或外科手术实现。[68]Hochman JS, Sleeper LA, Webb JG, et al; SHOCK Investigators. Early revascularization and long-term survival in cardiogenic shock complicating acute myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2006 Jun 7;295(21):2511-5.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1782030/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16757723?tool=bestpractice.com死亡率:来自一项心肌梗死后心源性休克患者的随机对照试验 (RCT) 的中等质量证据显示,在心肌梗死发生 48 小时以内接受侵入性血运重建的患者相比仅接受内科药物治疗的患者,6 个月和 12 个月时的死亡率有所下降。又一项 RCT 发现早期介入降低了 30 天时和 12 个月时的死亡率,但无显著差异。没有任何比较血管成形术和冠状动脉旁路移植术的 RCT。受试者<200名的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、受试者>200名且方法学存在缺陷的随机对照临床试验(RCT)、方法学存在缺陷的系统评价或者高质量的观察性(队列)研究。 还可以使用主动脉内球囊泵反搏(IABP) 进行机械支持。[37]van Diepen S, Katz JN, Albert NM, et al. Contemporary management of cardiogenic shock: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017 Oct 17;136(16):e232-68.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/136/16/e232.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28923988?tool=bestpractice.com 然而,多项 IABP 研究并没有显示死亡率改善,[37]van Diepen S, Katz JN, Albert NM, et al. Contemporary management of cardiogenic shock: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017 Oct 17;136(16):e232-68.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/136/16/e232.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28923988?tool=bestpractice.com[69]Ahmad Y, Sen S, Shun-Shin MJ, et al. Intra-aortic balloon pump therapy for acute myocardial infarction: a meta-analysis. JAMA Intern Med. 2015 Jun;175(6):931-9.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25822657?tool=bestpractice.com[70]Unverzagt S, Buerke M, de Waha A, et al. Intra-aortic balloon pump counterpulsation (IABP) for myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Mar 27;(3):CD007398.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD007398.pub3/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25812932?tool=bestpractice.com[71]Zheng XY, Wang Y, Chen Y, et al. The effectiveness of intra-aortic balloon pump for myocardial infarction in patients with or without cardiogenic shock: a meta-analysis and systematic review. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2016 Jul 8;16(1):148.https://bmccardiovascdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12872-016-0323-2http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27391391?tool=bestpractice.com [
]In people with myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock, what are the effects of intra-aortic balloon pump counterpulsation (IABP)?https://cochranelibrary.com/cca/doi/10.1002/cca.1071/full显示答案 欧洲指南也不建议在心源性休克中常规使用 IABP 机械支持。[72]Authors/Task Force members, Windecker S, Kolh P, et al. 2014 ESC/EACTS guidelines on myocardial revascularization: the Task Force on Myocardial Revascularization of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS) developed with the special contribution of the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI). Eur Heart J. 2014 Oct 1;35(37):2541-619.https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/35/37/2541/581070http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25173339?tool=bestpractice.com
心脏压塞需要在心电图 (ECG) 监测下通过心包穿刺进行紧急引流。仅需引流 30 mL 就能够产生效果,但有可能因为血液凝固而不成功。可能会需要心包引流或外科行心包开窗术。
肺栓子可能需要溶栓和抗凝,严重时偶尔需要手术。
过敏性休克需要给予肌内肾上腺素、氢化可的松、抗组胺药及支持治疗。
早期识别和治疗感染性休克是改善预后的关键。败血症生存运动治疗指南仍然是最被广泛接受的标准。[2]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock - 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com 基于证据的现行最佳实践是在败血症中采取组合式照护。[2]Rhodes A, Evans LE, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock - 2016. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Mar;43(3):304-77.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28101605?tool=bestpractice.com[73]Rhodes A, Phillips G, Beale R, et al. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign bundles and outcome: results from the International Multicentre Prevalence Study on Sepsis (the IMPreSS study). Intensive Care Med. 2015 Sep;41(9):1620-8.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26109396?tool=bestpractice.com[74]Levy MM, Rhodes A, Phillips GS, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: association between performance metrics and outcomes in a 7.5-year study. Intensive Care Med. 2014 Nov;40(11):1623-33.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00134-014-3496-0http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25270221?tool=bestpractice.com[75]Seymour CW, Gesten F, Prescott HC, et al. Time to treatment and mortality during mandated emergency care for sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2017 Jun 8;376(23):2235-44.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5538258/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28528569?tool=bestpractice.com 他们包括:
早期的目标导向性治疗不会在感染性休克患者中产生比通常处理更好的结果。[76]PRISM Investigators, Rowan KM, Angus DC, et al. Early, goal-directed therapy for septic shock - a patient-level meta-analysis. N Engl J Med. 2017 Jun 8;376(23):2223-34.https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMoa1701380?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.govhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28320242?tool=bestpractice.com
外伤所致的失血性休克需要治疗团队鉴别出血病因,从而尽快给予控制。外伤所致的大出血常常与纤维蛋白溶解有关,这会通过抑制凝血而进一步加重出血。除了液体和血液输注治疗之外,抗纤溶制剂对于稳定休克的创伤患者具有益处。[77]Ker K, Roberts I, Shakur H, et al. Antifibrinolytic drugs for acute traumatic injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 May 9;(5):CD004896.http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD004896.pub4/fullhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25956410?tool=bestpractice.com 对于失血性休克,过于积极的输液可能会增加出血率:特别是在MAPs>40 mmHg 时。[1]Antonelli M, Levy M, Andrews PJ, et al. Hemodynamic monitoring in shock and implications for management: international consensus conference, Paris, France, 27-28 April 2006. Intensive Care Med. 2007 Apr;33(4):575-90.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17285286?tool=bestpractice.com
张力性气胸需要用针头进行胸腔穿刺术来紧急减压。
张力性气胸空针减压 (needle decompression) 动画演示
中心静脉置管的动画演示
外周静脉置管的动画演示
女性留置导尿管的动画演示
男性留置导尿管的动画演示
面罩通气的动画演示
可疑心源性休克的特殊注意事项
心源性休克时积极输液可能会加剧休克,并导致急性肺水肿的发生(或加重)。对于这些患者,给予硝酸甘油减轻后负荷,以及给予多巴酚丁胺的专科治疗可能有益。[90]Werdan K, Russ M, Buerke M, et al. Cardiogenic shock due to myocardial infarction: diagnosis, monitoring and treatment: a German-Austrian S3 guideline. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2012 May;109(19):343-51.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3364528/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22675405?tool=bestpractice.com通常认为心源性休克是心脏指数降低、体循环血管阻力增加以及肺动脉压增加(通常被称为“湿型心源性休克”或伴血管容量过负荷)的一种状态;容量正常性心源性休克表现为心脏指数降低、体循环血管阻力增加以及在正常范围内的肺动脉压(“干型心源性休克”)。降低后负荷在两种心源性休克的管理中都是很重要的第一步。[37]van Diepen S, Katz JN, Albert NM, et al. Contemporary management of cardiogenic shock: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2017 Oct 17;136(16):e232-68.http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/136/16/e232.longhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28923988?tool=bestpractice.com